REPORT by Seymour TREMENHEERE, Esq., on the State of
EDUCATION in the Mining Districts of CORNWALL.
Sir,
London, December 24, 1840. In prosecuting an inquiry into the state of elementary instruction among the mining classes of the county of Cornwall, it appeared to me that I should be able to present to my Lords the Committee of Council a more satisfactory view of the subject, by limiting the field of investigation to a portion only of each of the three chief mining districts of the county.
These three districts may be said to have their respective centres at St. Blazey, near St. Austell
, at Redruth, and at St. Just, near the Land's End. They are in diameter, the first about six, the second fourteen, the third seven miles, and are separated from each other by intervening tracts of country chiefly agricultural. They are indicated on the geological map by the presence of the granite protruding through the slate formation in vast masses of unequal extent. Near the junction of these two series of rocks the metallic minerals are found.
The mining population is thickly scattered over these mineral districts, living in cottages of stone, strongly built, slated, and with whitewashed fronts ; single or standing two or three together, or in groups forming considerable villages. By far the greater number have small gardens attached to them; many have also from one to three acres of land. Some hundreds of these cottages may often be seen from one point of view; dispersed irregularly over the wide slopes' of the hills, or following the direction of the valleys, or of the main lines of road. At the same time the engine-houses of the mines will be conspicuous, the machinery for raising, stamping, and cleansing the ore, and the continuous mounds of refuse, extending along the course of the lodes. These lodes, or narrow laminæ, are often traceable for some miles, in a direction for the most part from east to west. They present their upper edges towards the surface, and descend with variable continuity, to the lowest depths that the skill of the miner has yet enabled him to reach.
The workings of a mine may extend according to different circumstances of age, prosperity, or permission from the lords of the soil, from a hundred yards in length to above a mile. Hence the aspect of the surface of the country where the mines are situated is various. In some localities they have covered the entire surface with the débris of ancient and actual workings, and obliterated every trace of vegetation within a space of a mile or two in circumference. More frequently they are seen spreading over the cultivated fields, and in the midst of an agricultural population. In some few spots, especially in the Land's End district, their machinery stands on bold prominences of the cliffs above the sea; while their workings are pushed to a great depth and extent beneath it. But in no part of the mining districts is the population collected into dense masses, nor are their cottages placed in other than healthy and airy situations, often commanding wide. views of the surrounding country and of the sea.
The first and obvious impression received from the appearance of the cottages, is that of the general prevalence of a state of comfort and well-being. This is confirmed by subsequent observation of their interior neatness, the quality of the food, the mode of preparing it, the state of the furniture, the dress of the people on ordinary occasions, and on Sundays and holidays.
No inconsiderable number of miners inhabit cottages built by themselves. Out of 685, of whom the question was asked, 161, or nearly one-fourth, were possessed of cottages of their own.
The cost of building a cottage is from 35l. to 50l. The land, generally a piece of uninclosed common, is granted for three lives, on payment of a small high-rent to the lord. The rest of the dwellings for the mining class have been erected for the most part by persons in trade, belonging to the large mining villages or to the neighbouring towns. The accumulations by all classes, due chiefly to mining prosperity, are further indicated by the deposits in the savings' banks of the county, amounting in the aggregate to 281,5417., at least two-thirds of which are said to belong to individuals now working, or who have worked, in the mines. Although these circumstances may afford an inference that the characteristic pecuniary condition of the mining class is one of ease, nevertheless there are not wanting numerous instances of severe privation, and occasional periods of distress.
A feature not less favourable than their physical condition is that of the general intelligence of the mining population. Those who have the best opportunities of observing, remark the apprehensiveness they display on all occasions requiring the exercise of that quality. Clergymen, strangers to the county, find that their addresses from the pulpit are readily understood and commented upon by the labouring classes, Men of science bear willing testimony to the skill and talent exhibited by the working miners in relation to their various occupations. Every stranger who comes in contact with them is disposed to the conclusion that the intellectual capacity of the class of miners in this county reaches a standard above the average of a labouring population. This result seems to How principally from their mode of life, from the distribution of their hours of labour, and from the constant and insensible education of circumstances, derived from the nature of their daily employments.
Of learning acquired from books they have very little. A large proportion of the adult male population is unable to read; a still larger is unable to write ; and very few of the females, young or old, can do either. Nor can it be said that an appreciation of the value of more instruction for their children, than they themselves received, is very great or general; or that in those cases where they admit its value, they are prepared to make much sacrifice to obtain it. Nevertheless an improvement to a certain extent is said to have taken place in the prevalent feeling.
The portions of the three districts which I selected as the particular field of inquiry into the number of schools and the general state of elementary education, consisted of the parishes of Tywardreath, St. Blazey, Gwennap, Redruth, Illogan, St. Agnes, and St. Just, containing most of the chief mines in the county, and an entire population supposed to amount to about 52,000.
From various sources of information, but chietly from inspection of, and extracts from, the rate-books of these parishes, I am led to estimate those engaged in mines, and their families, at two
thirds of the whole, the rest of the inhabitants being chiefly engaged in agriculture, professions, and trade. Some few schools and mines in the neighbouring parishes also demanded attention.
The parishes above specified contain 37 common day-schools. Of these I visited 32; the rest being remote, and too small to require a special visit. Regular books of admission not being kept in many of these schools, I received in most cases from the respective masters and mistresses the following account of the total numbers and the
average
attendance: COMMON Day Schools.
It cannot fail to be a subject of
regret to all
persons interested in these respective parishes, that out of so large a population only 1086 boys and 528 girls should at the present time be receiving the benefit of instruction in the common elementary day-schools of the working classes.
It may be worth while to endeavour to approximate to the numbers who, in the midst of this population, are growing up without such advantage as may be received from these schools. The number of children between the ages of 5 and 15 may be taken at one-fourth of the population. The following, therefore, will be the result:One-fourth of 51,500 .
13,000 Deduct, children of the higher and middle
classes, also children of the labouring classes sick, or prevented by casualties from attending, say one-third
4,333 Carried forward
4,333 13,000
.
a
Brought forward 4,333 13,000
Out of 900 children estimated, after vari-
ous inquiries, as frequenting small dame-
schools in these parishes, those above
five years old, able to read, knit, and
sew, amounted to
250
Average numbers stated as frequenting
the common day schools in the parishes
enumerated
1,614
6,197 Estimated number of children between 5
and 15, not attending the common day-
schools in the parishes above-mentioned
6,803 It cannot be doubted, that even allowing considerable latitude for any further deductions which a consideration of other circumstances not taken into the above account may suggest, the number of children who in these several parishes are without any daily instruction is very great. It is probable, indeed, that many who are between the age of 10 and 15 may at some time or other have attended, for short periods, either the dame-schools, or the common day-schools in their neighbourhoods; the age of 10 being that at which they usually go to work at the mines. It is obvious, however, that little can bave been learnt at that age, and that when the habit of learning is thus early interrupted, nothing of much value will be retained.
If the children of the labouring classes now attending these day schools are few in proportion to the whole number of an age for education, and if the time allowed for it by the parents of those few is short and inadequate, still less are the methods pursued by 27 out of 32 masters and mistresses whose schools I visited, or the books and apparatus used, such as to afford any reasonable hope that instruction of any permanent value could be imparted to more than a small number of their pupils, even if they remained much longer at school than is now the custom. By all these 27 the old system of teaching is pursued, and the books in use are those ordinarily accompanying it. The payments are so low and irregular that good class-books cannot be afforded by the master. Whatever books are used, are provided by the parents. Being themselves generally unable to read, the cheapest seem to be considered to have the most merit. A fragment of a Testament, and a small spelling-book, are the ordinary store; for the few more advanced, the Bible, and the elementary books of Pinnock, Murray, and Goldsmith.
The school-rooms were in general found to be light, and clean, and sufficiently provided with desks, but in most instances close and ill ventilated. The terms of payment ranged from 2s. to 58. 6d., and 78. 6d. per quarter. Of the masters, the great majority had either been hurt or bad lost their health in the mines, or had been unsuccessful in trade or other occupations; but their qualifications appeared in most instances to be respectable, and their
....
demeanour towards their pupils mild and conciliatory. Nevertheless it must be confessed that they cannot be regarded as possessing, either in their own resources or in the methods they pursue, the capability of effecting, to any desirable extent, the mental and moral improvement of those under their charge. About half belonged to the Established Church, one to the denomination of Independents, one to that of Baptists, the rest to the different sections of the Wesleyans. Nine follow the system of the National Society somewhat modified, one that of the British and Foreign Society. With respect to the use of catechisms in many of the schools conducted on the old system, either the Church or the Wesleyan Catechism was taught, according to the wish of the respective parents.
In the greatest number of these schools comparatively few boys had advanced in arithmetic as far as the rule-of-three. Still fewer had learned anything of grammar, English history, geography, mensuration, or linear drawing, subjects which almost all the masters professed to teach. In 19 schools, boys and girls were instructed together. In eight they had separate schools. In almost all, the amount of instruction, which seemed to be thought requisite for the girls, scarcely passed the boundary of the merest elements.
It is gratifying to be able to turn to a few schools in which a somewhat superior quality of elementary instruction is attainable, and where some approach has been made towards more efficient methods.
In the boys’ school at the village of Illogan, the scriptural and catechetical lessons are made to consist of much more than mere reading and repetition. The due exercise of the understanding seems to be kept very constantly in view. Maps and a few books illustrative of Scripture are used to assist the apprehension, and to awaken greater interest by giving clearer perceptions. Occasional lessons in geography, in the elements of astronomy, on physiology, on metals and minerals, flowers, and other subjects of natural history, tested afterwards either catethetically, or by writing, enlarge the circle of ideas and arouse curiosity. The “ Instructor," published by the Educational Committee of the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge, the first reading book, and books from the school library are used. Maps are drawn on the black board from memory; also on paper. The black board is used for drawing and illustrating geometrical figures and simple objects of natural history or of art. Grammar is attended to. The arithmetic frame is in use for beginners. Some few boys had gone through Bonnycastle's Mensuration; others had begun simple equation and Euclid. None were above 13 years of age. The master, having some assistance, is enabled to devote more individual attention to the intellectual progress of the higher classes. The manner in which the books of the school
lending library are sought for by those still at the school would seem to indicate that a taste for reading had been to a certain extent created. Some boys who had left it have returned to ask for books. Most of the boys who had passed through the school are now at work in the mines. Six have become assistant schoolmasters. There is also a lending-library for adults, consisting of 280 volumes, which is stated to be fairly supported.
At Trevenson, in the same parish, a smaller school, conducted on a similar plan, affords more limited, but perhaps proportionate results. The black wall is here used by the younger children for their arithmetic lessons and for diagrams. Drawings of machinery afford objects and illustrations for oral lessons. In arithmetic the practical application of one branch of the elementary education of the labouring classes is recognised in the use of exercises copied from “ mine bills,” or calculations of the value and apportionment of ore, and the value of various kinds of contract labour.
The children of these two schools, and of three girls' schools in the same parish, have enjoyed the advantage during the last year of receiving instruction in singing from a properly qualified master, who is gradually training them to sing by note ; several of the pieces contained in Mr. Hickson's Manual have been learnt. One of the many good results which may be reasonably anticipated from this valuable accessory to education is already becoming visible in the improved psalmody of the parish church.
To both these boys' schools is attached the very desirable addition of a piece of garden-ground, part of an adjoining field divided into plots of a perch or two each. The boys are encouraged to work on their allotments for an hour or upwards each day, after their dinner-hour. Many, consequently, bring their dinners with them ; by which means, in addition to the advantage of learning something of cottage-gardening and the useful practical lesson of well-regulated and orderly Jabour, they are kept during the entire day under the eye of the master, and thereby receive more effectual guidance in the regulation of their habits and conduct.
The expenses of these five last-mentioned schools, with their excellent accompaniments, are chiefly borne by a noble lady, the daughter and successor of a late noble lord,* to whom two public testimonials have been erected by the county, to commemorate a life devoted to every object by which either the general interests or individual worth and happiness might be advanced and secured.
The British and Foreign Schools at St. Agnes were well provided with requisite apparatus, partly at the cost of the master, whose attainments are very creditable. His school consists of and support.
* Lord De Dunstanville.
about 70 boys, chiefly between 9 and 12, a few are between 12 and 13: 6 were learning underground dialling; 15 had proceeded some way in mensuration, and bad learnt the use of the globes ; 6 were learning decimals ; 36 English grammar; I was in algebra, and was able to calculate the power and duty of a steam-engine. Maps are drawn with neatness and accuracy on paper, and simple objects on the black board. It is to be regretted that there is a probability of this school being discontinued in consequence of its not receiving adequate assistance
Two schools remain to be mentioned, in which a somewhat higher grade of instruction prevails.
The school at Trevarth, in the parish of Gwennap, was set on foot in 1835 by subscription of mine-agents and others, who wished to secure near their own residences the means of enabling their children to acquire the rudiments of such scientific knowledge as bore particularly on mining operations, and at the same time to receive somewhat more of general instruction than could be obtained at the ordinary day-schools. In addition to the common elementary books, Chambers's Sciences and Nesbit's Mensuration are used, dialling, mapping, linear and perspective drawing are practised. French and Latin are also taught. The school appeared to be carefully conducted. The number on the books was 58.
A preparatory mining-school, near Camborne, was opened in April last, by a master whose skill and ingenuity in respect to scientific subjects connected with mining have obtained for him several prizes at the exhibitions of the Polytechnic Society of the county.
The instruction offered consists of the Elements of Euclid and algebra, the principles and practice of underground dialling and projection, land-measuring and mapping, architectural geometry, drawing, and tinting, Benton's or Mosley's Course of Mechanics, with linear drawings for engineers, and a series of problems and tables for the miner, mine-carpenter, smith, timberman, and pitman. Calculations by decimals appeared to be usefully blended at an early stage of progress with common arithmetic, of which the principles were sought to be impressed as well as the rules. Short methods of calculating circular and solid contents had been worked out, and were used by the pupils. The usefulness of this school was limited by reason of the master being unable, under his present arrangements, to devote to it more than a portion of his time. It is to be feared also that the terms, with the exception of those for the most elementary subjects, will be found to be above the ordinary reach of the working miner.*
There can be little doubt that the resources of a considerable
See a further notice of this school, Appendix III.
proportion of the mining class would enable them to give to the existing schools which possess any merit a greater degree of support than they receive. The present average rate of wages per month may be gathered from the following accounts obtained from mines where the averages are carefully made up :
But a statement of averages can afford only an imperfect idea of the actual pecuniary condition of a large portion of the working miners; and in estimating their capability to support schools, the fluctuating nature of their resources must be borne in mind as a leading element of the calculation.
The most numerous adult class is that of tributers. They are employed under ground in extracting the ore, when discovered, and in reducing it on the surface to a marketable state. For this they receive a per-centage on the produce of the ore when sold. Their life is one of continual speculation, and their success depends on the judgment they form of the quantity of ore which the lode is likely to yield—of the quantity they may be able to extract during the period of their bargain, usually of two months' duration—of the cost of rendering it merchantable, the probable quantity of pure metal which it will yield per ton, and the probable price of pure tin or copper in the market at the time when the ore will be offered for sale.
Although the average rates of wages taken for periods of six months or a year may be as above stated, the fluctuation from month to month, and the difference in the earnings of different individuals, will probably be very great. Many of the tributers of a mine, having a favourable opinion of their ultimate prospects, may continue to renew their bargains, although gaining very small sums for many months together. Others may at the same time be receiving large returns, the fruit of similar perseverance. The general average may consequently be high, if made
a
up of these different sums; but it would afford a very fallacious index of the general condition. An inspection of the tributers' monthly accounts in any large mine would show, perhaps, almost every degree of fluctuation, from under 20s. per month, to above 201. or 301.
It occasionally happens that from 801. to 1001. are gained by a tributer in the course of two months.
The tutworkmen, who perform contract work, are the next most numerous class of adult labourers. They are employed in sinking shafts and driving levels for the discovery of the ore. Their contracts are also usually for two months. They are paid by the solid fathom. Their earnings are not so great as the tributers; neither, although more regular, are they exempt from fluctuations, caused chiefly by their meeting with rock varying in hardness in the course of executing their contracts. The accounts of 87 tutworkmen in one mine, for one month, which may be taken as
a fair sample, show variations in the rates earned from ll. 158. to 41. 18s. per month.
But the money-wages of both these classes of labourers are sometimes aided to a considerable extent by other sources. Among the most important is the opportunity of cultivating potatoes in the fields of neighbouring farmers. A natural allotment system has thus sprung up, which proves beneficial to both parties. The miner obtains a stock of potatoes, without, in general, any money-payment; the farmer in that case allotting a perch of land for each load of household manure furnished by the miner. The latter plants and draws the crop, the farmer preparing the land and carting the manure, of which he has the benefit for the corn crop of the following year. The number of perches which a miner can thus secure depends usually upon the quantity of manure he can collect; and this again greatly depends on his facilities for cutting turf or furze for fuel, of which the ashes form the staple of the manure. Those who are most careful will endeavour to cultivate from 30 to 60 perches, which, in ordinary years, at two Winchester bushels to a perch, will supply their families for some months; enabling them also to feed pig, perhaps two, and to reserve seed for the year following. The garden also, attached to at least four-fifths of the cottages, is in general fairly cultivated. The labourer in this county derives also another great advantage from the abundance and cheapness of tish, chiefly mackarel and pilchards, of which he obtains a yearly supply to salt. These, boiled with potatoes, make a part of the daily consumption. He lays in his stock of wheat or barley flour monthly. A portion of it is baked into bread; part is used in the form of a pasty, containing potatoes, and occasionally a piece of pork. The same materials made into a stew, or a vegetable broth thickened with a little flour, or otherwise flavoured, are the common evening meals. Butchers’-meat is used often ex
...
travagantly, more frequently in small pieces, once or twice a week, baked under paste with potatoes. It is perhaps in order to enable them to command this variety of diet that they consent to consume a portion of barley-bread, to which is generally added a small quantity of fresh butter.
Possessing resources in the use of land to a greater or lesser extent, as above mentioned, in addition to his monthly earnings, the miner, especially if a tributer, is better able to encounter the pecuniary risk to which his occupation exposes him. When the lode which he has undertaken to break is small, he must be allowed a large portion of its produce to remunerate him for his labour. He may probably for many months together fail to earn a remunerating profit; but if the indications in the condition of the rock adjoining the lode are favourable, he will, at the stated periods, renew his bargain in the hope that the lode will eventually become rich. If before the completion of his existing erm of two months bis expectations are realized, he and his comrades, his co-adventurers, are often able to work out as much ore as will yield, when brought to inarket, from 602. to 1001. to each, and occasionally much more. At the next renewal of the contract the rate of tribute is re-adjusted, and fair wages will probably be earned until the ore fails. The speculative process then re-commences, either there or elsewhere, as the judgment of the tributer directs him.
The sum accumulated by a successful adventure is laid out by a careful miner in acquiring a lease for lives of an acre or two of uninclosed land, on which he builds a cottage, either for himself, or on speculation. The quantity of improveable land in the vicinity of most of the mines, to be had on lease at a very easy rate, affords to the labouring classes one of the leading advantages of a new country. The miner encloses the land so acquired, clears it of stone, furze, or heather, and cultivates it during his leisure hours. He also often builds his house himself with very little aid, except from the carpenter. This contributes to produce attachment to home. He seldom quits his parish to seek work elsewhere, except under necessity. He thus becomes known to his comrades, to his employers, and to his neighbourhood. And in this preference for his own locality may perhaps be found one solution of the fact of the frequent and great inequality of wages in the different districts.*
* The cottage generally consists of two rooms on the ground floor, and two above, and seldom contains more than one family. Among 685 families of whom the inquiry was made, there were only 60 lodgers; many of whom were relatives of the family with whom they resided. The value of this social characteristic is obviously great, in its tendency to maintain the domestic sympathies in their strength and purity, and to preserve to the labouring man the comfort of a quiet home. Single men who do not live with their parents, most commonly obtain lodgings kept by elderly or disabled persons, or others, who adopt this mode of adding to a scanty income.
A large part of the accumulations made by the mining population to the amount already stated is deposited in the savings' banks. The sums absorbed by the public-houses and beer-shops, although still considerable, are, according to common opinion, greatly on the decline, irrespectively of any temporary or partial decrease in the general amount of earnings. In three of the chief mining parishes, the number of beer-shops and public-houses is 20 less than it was in 1836. This is the more satisfactory, because the number of persons who have joined the total abstinence societies does not appear to be great. The three parishes above referred to contain only four temperance inns. The decrease, therefore, of drunkenness, and of the improvident use of beer and spirits, seems to a certain extent fairly attributable to amended habits proceeding from conviction, and not requiring the aid of inferior motives for its support.
But where the pecuniary resources of a labouring class are derived to so great an extent from speculation, and where, in ordinary cases, only a small portion of the monthly wages can be received before the expiration of the entire month, it happens unfortunately, in the great majority of instances, that the sum to be received has been anticipated by debts, incurred to the small retail shops which supply the necessary articles of daily consumption. By far the most adverse circumstance in the pecuniary condition of the miner is the necessity imposed upon him of running into debt. Before it can be ascertained what is the probable amount of ore extracted by the tributer in a given time, the ore itself must undergo various processes, in rendering it fit for the smelter. It is then assayed, and a certain proportion of the value is paid to the tributer at the end of a fortnight as subsistence-money. He receives the balance when the ore is sold at the periodical sales, at stated places in the county. The sum advanced as subsistence will therefore depend on the quantity and value of the ore he is raising. If it is small, he is obliged, unless he has other resources, to live for a time on credit. The tutworkmen are under the like necessity. Their work is measured once a month, the underground agent reporting in the interval what advance as subsistence may be made on the work already executed. Whether larger or more frequent advances are practicable, or whether any other mode of payment can be adopted consistently with the rigid economy which mining operations demand, are subjects which must engage the thoughts of all persons who feel an interest in the well-being of the miner. The system of paying wages partly in goods * is not very common, and does not, except perhaps in connexion with the smaller mines, exist in any rigour. Numerous small dealers have therefore sprung up, from whom credit is readily obtained by the miver of good character, who is known in his parish and neighbourhood. Competition among these dealers renders it comparatively easy for
* The truck system.
page 200
occasional settlers also from other mining parishes to get credit. The prices of small retail shops must necessarily be high. Moreover, the cheaper articles of diet, potatoes, fish, &c., being too bulky for small shops, are seldom to be obtained there. The consequence is that the miner is obliged to purchase bread, butter, salted pork, and other articles, forming a more expensive diet than be would probably use if he had ready money at command; and this at a time when his reduced resources demand a more rigid economy.
If from a continuance of ill success, or from any other cause, his credit is exhausted, severe distress often ensues. A more grave result often seems to flow from this necessity of living on credit. The accumulations of debt often become so great, that little hope appears of clearing them off, or they would demand the whole proceeds arising from a successful speculation. In either case the principle of honesty is disturbed and weakened by a strong temptation. The credit system has received some little check from the existence of the Stannary Court. This court, which was revived in 1836, and was chiefly designed as a court of law and equity for settling disputes arising out of mining transactions, has also been resorted to as a court for the recovery of small debts, in cases where either the plaintiff or defendant is, or is supposed to be, a miner. It has been serviceable to the small shopkeeper, more perhaps by arming bim with the power to sue, than from the number of actions really brought; the debtor preferring to pay the demand rather than suffer exposure, which would in pair his general credit.
Although the amount earned depends, as has been shown, to a great extent on the skill and industry of the miner, yet his wages are subject to much fluctuation from other causes common to all commercial proceedings, and independent of his own personal speculations. When the price of metal is low in the general market the tributer's gains are reduced, together with those of the adventurer; and the latter, receiving a less return, is proportionately restricted in the employment of contract labour in search of new lodes, or in other expensive work in the mine. A reduction in the quantity of work to be done induces increased competition for what is still offered. Of this competition, whether arising from occasional changes in the amount of demand for labour, or from a constantly increasing pressure of population, advantage is frequently taken to accept the proffered labour of the tutworkman for a period of one or two months for merely nominal wages. The proceeding (believed to have been long in use) may be thus described. When old work is re-opened, or new commenced, it is prit up to an auction, on a certain day, with all the other work to be offered at the mine, in the presence of the men assembled for that purpose. The bidding is downwards, and he who makes the lowest offer before a stone is thrown up and falls to the ground is the taker A contract to excavate in two months a certain number
page 201
of solid fathoms of rock is often taken at a farthing per fathom, and sometimes for nothing. The object of the taker and his comrades is to get established in a piece of work likely to prove permanent; the practice being not to underbid them at the end of their two months, when they have the option to renew the contract at the price thought reasonable by the mine agent. The effect is that the takers do two months' work for nothing, and the wages of the third month are greatly reduced by the cost of powder, candles, and tools for the previous three. During this time they have, in all probability, lived on credit, and therefore incurred debts which it may require many months to clear off. The tributers are also subject to this injurious species of competition, though under a different form. It is almost the only circumstance in the relation of labourer and employer in this county which can be recognised as having a tendency to undermine the remarkably sound and satisfactory state of feeling which, on the whole, subsists between them.* And although in this, as in all other contracts for labour at the mines, the men themselves determine their own rate of wages, in this particular instance it has been thought desirable in some of the largest mines to interpose a check, the practice in question being thought to overstep the legitimate bounds of reasonable competition. The substitute which has in some cases been adopted is a lottery among those who signify to the mine agents their wish to compete for new work, and who, from their known character and ability as workmen, are permitted to do so. The work is set to the individuals to whom the lot falls at a rate which will yield ordinary wages. More commonly, perhaps, the agent stops the bidding, fixes his own price, and selects the workmen.
Another cause of the unequal condition of the miner is found in the prevalent habit of early marriage. Of 150 couples whose ages at marriage were ascertained, that of the males averaged 24-7 years, and that of the females 23:3. The average of 150 marriages entered on the marriage register of the parish of St. Just is, for the males 25-91, for the females 24:10.1 Of 250 other couples in the eastern and midland districts, all the males but 37 married between 19 and 26, and all the females but 43 between 19 and 25. It is seldom that provision is made for marriage by previous saving. If the most essential articles of furniture are not given to a newlymarried couple, they are usually obliged to obtain them on credit. Yet men's wages are earned from about the age of 18, and the
*“ No one has heard of disagreements between the Cornish miners and their employers; no combinations or unions on the one side or the other exist ; nor have turns-out or strikes been attempted or contemplated.”
- Extract from a Lecture delivered to the Society of Arts in March, 1837, by Mr. John Taylor, as quoted by Sir Charles Lemon, in a paper on the Statistics of the Copper Mines of Cornwall in the Journal of the Statistical Society, vol. i. p. 74.
I am indebted to the Rev. the Vicar of the parish for this statement.
page 202
cost of board and lodging for single men amounts only to about half of what is earned. Beginning married life with debt; his receipts fluctuating between high gains and a few shillings per month ; with the most imperfect knowledge of domestic economy; having a wife who probably cannot keep the commonest accounts in figures or in writing, who from the time she is married does not earn anything, except perhaps during a few days at hay-making and harvest, and at the time of drawing potatoes; and who is generally obliged to hire assistance to make various articles of her own and her children's dress, it cannot be a matter of surprise that the miner should experience at times severe privation. This period of privation is most likely to occur with the greatest severity while he is bringing up his family. From the time his children are old enough to earn wages at the mine they are a source of wealth to him, until the age of 19 or 20. This prospect is no uncommon inducement to early marriage. The following examples of profit derived from the labour of their children are not unusual :*
NET EARNINGS.
Per Month.
Per Month, d.
d. Miner 2 10 0 Miner
2 0 0 Son (16 years) 1 0 0 Two Sons
3 10 0 Ditto (10 years). 0 7 0
£. s.
£. s.
.
With care a sum is accumulated in a few years sufficient to obtain a lease of a few acres of land on the lives of the husband and wife and one child, and also to build a house. Shortly after the age above named the sons receive their own wages. In the course of a short time they become fathers of families themselves, and encounter in turn the same privations. The variable. ness of the miner's condition, the constant danger he is exposed to, and the almost certain prospect of losing health and life at a comparatively early age, are apt to induce the species of thoughtlessness
* I forbear to enter upon the question of the vast amount of physical and moral injury they inflict on their children by thus prematurely exposing them to the labour, the heat, the moisture, and the many other deleterious influences arising from under-ground work in the mine. The subject will be amply discussed by Dr. Barham, M.D., in his Report to the Children's Employment Commission.
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often incident to an existence such as his. If he marries young he also dies young, and he marries without provision because the lottery of his life may soon give him one. The unhealthiness of his occupation is said to shorten the duration of the miner's life 11 years. The disease which usually attacks him is that known by the name of the miner's consumption. Perhaps some confirmation of the general inferences on this subject may be seen in the following results, deduced from a careful inspection of the burial-register of the parish of St. Just. The entries of burials are 393, commencing with 4th July, 1839, and ending with November 10th, 1840.
The miners are distinguished from those employed at the stamps and other labour on the surface. Of the 67 miners whose burials are recorded, 29, or 43 per cent., are entered as having died of consumption. Of the 45 adult males of other occupations 8, or only 18 per cent., are entered as having died of that disease. The average age of the miners is 43.2, that of the adults of other occupations 54.1.*
The unhealthiness of the employment of the miner proceeds from various causes. The mine is worked by sinking shafts at certain distances, and driving levels to meet them along the course of the lode, each level about 10 fathoms below the other, and therefore increasing in number as the mine increases in depth. The levels are generally five feet and a half high, and three and a half broad. To excavate these levels is the department of the tutwork
The tributer follows him, and pursues the lode upwards through the intermediate spaces of 10 fathoms in height, making stages for himself as he proceeds, to enable him to get at his work. The ore, as he detaches it, is allowed to fall down to the level, along which it is wheeled to the shaft, to be raised by machinery to the surface.
The small supply of pure air which can reach the ends of the deep levels, or the various spots where the tributer is at work when remote from the shafts, and where adequate ventilation is therefore difficult and costly, is much reduced by the burning of candles, and the frequent explosion of gunpowder in the process of blasting. The temperature in which the men work may be said to range from 70 to 95 degrees. In the extensive and deep mines, most of which have reached depths varying from 150 to 260 fathoms, t out of every 600 men employed under ground, upwards of 400 probably work in a temperature approaching the latter point, and some in still greater heat.
The labour consists chiefly in driving holes for blasting, and in separating masses by the use of the wedge. The direction in which the wedge or the boring-iron is to be driven in order to produce the greatest effect often obliges the miner to work lying on his
* The cause of death is in each instance received from a person who witnessed it.
+ The deepest mine has reached 293 fathoms, or 1758 feet.
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side, or in other constrained positions, which add to the difficulty of the labour. If the lode is small, the tributer, anxious to economise bis labour in following it, works out no larger space than is absolutely necessary to allow him to use his tools. The heat and the impurity of the air are thus, however, greatly increased. The severity of the physical exertion, and the high temperature, make it difficult for the miner to retain the most scanty covering, and he often works without any. The same causes, and the depressing effect of the vitiated atmosphere, oblige him frequently to interrupt his exertions to avoid extreme exhaustion. * In certain positions he is not exempt from exposure to chilling currents of air, alternating with this extreme heat. After from five to seven hours' labour in this temperature, if working in a mine of any magnitude, he has, in returning to the surface, to climb up a height varying from 900 to above 1500 feet. The ascent is made by ladders from level to level, and therefore each above 60 feet high. They are in general nearly perpendicular, though sometimes they incline laterally, and occasionally overhang. To accomplish this ascent from the lower levels, no slight exertion is felt to be required, even by one who is subjected only for a short time to the heat, the smoke, and the impure air which prevail there. But after several hours of severe and exhausting labour, to climb up a height in perpendicular feet equal to one-fourth or one-third of a mile, demands an expenditure of strength to which the constitution does not long remain equal. Emerging from the shafts, the miner stops at the nearest stream of water, generally one that flows from the condenser of a steam-engine, and is therefore tepid, where he is detained from four to five minutes in removing the grease from his hands, and the dirt from his face, arms, hands, and legs. This sudden exposure in the open air at all seasons, by night as well as by day, when highly heated, and at a moment of exhaustion from continuous work in such a temperature, and from the laboriousness of the ascent, is with reason regarded as another and not unimportant exciting cause of inflammatory disease.
The accidents to which the miners are subject cannot be adverted to without an expression of regret at their exceeding frequency. They are liable to be severely maimed and injured by the fall of pieces of rock, by premature or accidental explosions of gunpowder, and by falling from ladders. In addition to those accidents which only disable for a time, the numbers which prove fatal are painfully exhibited by the burial-registers of some of the mining parishes which have been examined with reference to this subject. I have been furnished with the following † statement of
* It is mentioned that those at work in the very deep mines sometimes seek a slight refreshment, by bathing in a small pool of water accumulated in the level for that purpose; in which, nevertheless, the thermometer will be found to stand at 90 degrees.
* I am indebted for this statement to Mr. Blee, of Redruth, by whom much attention has been paid to the vital statistics of the mining population.
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the result of an examination of the burial-registers for the parishes named, corrected from one which was read at the last meeting of the Polytechnic Society at Falmouth :
To this I am able to add the result of a personal examination of the burial-register of St. Just:
All these cases of violent death proceeded from accidents in and about the mines. To all the entries the signature of the coroner is required to be attached. I observed it in each case on the St. Just register, except the four first, in which it was stated to have been omitted by an oversight. From these statements it appears that, of the miners who have died in those parishes since the burial-registers have been kept as at present, in the first list one in six, in the second one in four, have been killed by accidents, and have been the subjects of coroners' inquests. The following is an abstract of the total numbers of miners' deaths as accounted for on the St. Just register :
Miners' deaths entered 67
Died of Consumption 29 }
Killed by various accidents 16 } 45
Died of acute disorders, chiefly inflammatory 13
Died of old age 9
67
It has been seen that the average age of the 67 amounted only to 43. The additional fact, that the deaths of 45 of the 67 were caused by consumption or accident, may be taken as a further and corroborative proof of the dangerous and destructive character of the miner's mode of life.
The distress thus brought upon families by improvidence in regard to marriage, by early disease, and by accidents affecting health and life, may therefore be regarded as another of the leading
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causes of the fluctuating and uncertain support which the elementary schools of the mining classes are found to receive.
Various means by which the adverse circumstances of the miner's condition might be lightened have from time to time been discussed in the county and partially adopted. A suitable place has in many instances been provided for drying the men's clothes. In one instance I observed that the entrance to the ladder-shaft was in the changing-house; the men, therefore, of that part of the mine, on reaching the surface, came at once into a warm temperature. In some few mines the warm water, which is continually flowing from the condensers of steam-engines, has been led into a shelter to protect the men while washing. The great importance, as a sanatory measure, of complete and frequent bathing after labour under ground has been often insisted upon. In one mine advantage has been taken of the flow of warm water at command to provide convenient baths for the men. The bath-room at North Roskear Mine adjoins the drying and changing-house ; it is 45 feet long by 9 wide. A large wooden trough along the centre of the room is divided into several baths, the water of which, flowing through in a stream, is continually renewed. A range of boarded seats is on each side. The men are encouraged in the frequent use of these baths, which they appreciate as a great source of comfort. The exhaustion arising from the labour under ground, without occasional nourishment being taken, and subsequently from a walk of perhaps four or five miles in returning home, has also been noticed as among the concurrent causes of premature decline. The habit of taking some food under ground is now becoming general. At one mine the men on returning to the surface have, in cold weather, been provided with soup, partly out of the proceeds of the Mine Fund, partly by subscriptions of the adventurers. It appears from various publications circulating in the county, that much consideration has been given to various projects for extending and perfecting these and other contrivances for the benefit and comfort of the mining classes. Neither have endeavours been wanting to encourage and lead them to the use of means in regard to health, not yet as familiar as they ought to be, but simple, and valuable for their preservative tendencies; or to devise methods by which the two most serious evils affecting the lot of the miner, the labour of the ascent and the frequency of accident, may be reduced or obviated.
Much occasional aid is derived by the mining class from clubs and benefit societies. The contribution to the mine club attached to every mine is in general limited to 6d. in the pound of net wages, and is applied to furnishing medical relief in cases of accident. The benefit societies are numerous, but their rules and management seem in many respects imperfect. Instances of failure are therefore common. Many, not being enrolled, are
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liable to be broken up by the vote of a majority, and the accumulations divided. In one parish six had been dissolved or had failed within the last few months.* The habit of holding their meetings in public-houses is still prevalent. It is calculated that upwards of 6001, have been spent in this manner by the clubs of two neighbouring parishes within a year. The custom, however, of drinking together on those occasions seems so far to be placed under restrictions by some clubs, that an allowance is made of only 2d. per head to those who attend. An annual dinner has been substituted by others. Three or four mine clubs are so conducted as to be enabled to extend relief to a greater variety of cases. The East Wheal Crofty Mine Club was established in 1834, with a fund of 14621. 2s. At first the payments were 8d. in the pound of all net earnings. As the stock increased the payment was reduced to 6d., and subsequently to 4d. In addition to this, Id. in the pound is deducted from all merchants' bills, on behalf of the club. This tax on the merchant is justified on the ground of his participating in the prosperity of the mine. It is asserted that the articles of ordinary consumption at the mine thus subject to this trifling tax are not thereby enhanced in price to the adventurer. The amount produced by it to the mine in question is between 357. and 401. per annum. The Mine Fund now amounts to 14211, 10s. 8d." In addition to the usual relief of 28s. per month to men disabled by accidents, those who
* The following observations, with which I have been favoured by a gentleman who has bestowed much attention on the subject of the benefit societies of one of the mining districts, appear to deserve general consideration. He states that clubs “ have a most unlucky fate in that district. The people are strongly inclined to their formation, but they appear equally determined to establish them on unsound principles. Two years ago we attempted to form the District Club, but failed, entirely from the want of knowledge in the people. On that occasion I inquired into the condition of the existing Benefit Societies. All those of about 30 years' standing I found to be insolvent; that is to say, they had not kept their engagements with their members. It was not possible that they should. All ages from 15 to 35, or even above, were admitted on the same terms". The public-house expenses were also considerable. One evil is, that the population is strongly averse to the interference of gentlemen in their concerns. (Elsewhere the gentry take a large part in the matter.) Hence there is a want of both checks and sound principles in the clubs. Neither does charity flow in that direction. If the contributions were required to be according to approved tables, much of the mischief would be prevented."
--------------------------------
a See Instructions for the Establishment of Friendly Societies, with a form of Rules, and Tables applicable thereto. London: Clowes. For Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1838.
Instructions for the establishment of Parochial Societies for granting Government Annuities. The whole money paid being returnable in case the party contracting does not live to the age at which such annuity is to become payable, or if he is unable to continue the payment of the monthly or annual instalments. Pursuant to Statute 3 Will. IV. c. 14. London. For Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1837. ,
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are suffering from disease traceable to their employment as miners are allowed a monthly payment of about 20s. Widows also receive, on the death of their husbands, either the sum of 101., or a weekly allowance, according to the discretion of the agents; the amount depending on the circumstances of the family, and being continued until the children are capable of getting their own livelihood. The four mine clubs which have adopted this, or an analogous system, afford valuable aid in alleviating the distress and lingering sutfering into which the family of the miner is often plunged by the sudden accident which strikes him down, or by the slow disease which, contracted in the course of his employment, gradually undermines his frame, and takes from him all power of further exertion. It cannot be doubted that it is most desirable to preserve to the children of those men who have been overtaken by accidental injuries or by ill health that independence of feeling, and the reluctance to have recourse to the poor-rates, which characterise the class to which they belong. One of the most valuable auxiliaries to such an end would assuredly be found in the enlargement of the present restricted system of mine and benefit clubs, so as to comprise a larger number of members, and to extend relief to a greater variety of cases, and in placing the latter description of clubs on the foundation of sound principles. The progressive enforcement of the New Poor Law will probably cause attention to be directed more closely to this subject, and also to that of the formation of loan societies * as existing elsewhere, for supplying aid under temporary pressure, either of unsuccessful speculation in the ordinary course of work, or of the stoppage of a mine, or the accidental necessity of quitting a mine from the falling off of the demand for labour, or from other causes over which the miner has no control. A society of much value in this point of view has been established by the Wesleyan minister in the parish of St. Just, for placing at day-schools the children of widows, or of parents who, by reason of the casualties of the miner's life, are unable to afford the expense. Their funds enable them to keep 30 children at school, at 2s. 6d. per quarter each, and to provide some of them with shoes and clothing. Occasional aid is also afforded in some parishes by clothing societies, conducted by the honorary members, and partly supported by their contributions. Societies of other kinds exist, with a view to general improvement rather than to pecuniary aid. To none of these are more beneficial effects attributed than to the Cottage Gardening Societies, which are numerous, and meet with general and cordial encouragement. In addition to the usual prizes for garden produce, rewards are given to those cottagers who have brought
* See Statute 3 and 4 Vict. c. 110, to amend the laws relating to Loan Societies.
See also Loans on the Mont de Piété system.-Journal of Statistical Society, yol, iii. part iii. p. 293.
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up the largest families without parochial relief, and to those whose characters are best known for sobriety and honesty. The mechanics’ institutes in the county are few in number, and receive little support from the labouring miners. The Carharrack Miners' and Mechanics' Reading Society in the parish of Gwennap possesses a library of 300 volumes. Cases are prepared for minerals, and efforts are being made to procure a supply of philosophical instruments. Lectures are read and discussions held on alternate weeks, and the class meets once a week for mutual instruction in mathematics. Two book societies in St. Just, conducted by miners, may be mentioned. One of them has been established 20 years, and consists of 50 members ; the payments of ls. entrance, and 2d. per week, producing between 5l. and 61. per annum. As the books accumulate they are sold to the members at an occasional meeting. The process of the sale may perhaps be adverted to as characteristic, being a copy of that employed at the large periodical sales of ore in the county. The price offered by each member is written by him on a slip of paper, and given to the secretary; each “ ticket” is then read aloud, and the book is assigned to the member whose ticket contains the highest offer. The scientific institutions of a higher character possessed by the county, the Polytechnic Society in particular, appear to be most beneficially engaged in directing attention to many of the important subjects affecting the sanatory and general condition of the mining classes. By means also of their periodical exhibitions, and the publicity given to their transactions, they have been instrumental in drawing forth many creditable manifestations of native talent in various departments of art and science.
It may be conceded that some advance has been already made by the mining class towards improved habits, more prudent management of resources, and a stronger sense of duty as regards the instruction of their children; and the actual state of this population, and the advantages which they enjoy, may fairly be said to render further improvement more readily practicable. They possess two of the greatest boons that can fall to the lot of a labouring community-leisure and hope. In regard to the latter, among no labouring class does advancement so directly depend on, or so uniformly follow, industry, ability, and prudence. Improveable land is accessible for a very moderate payment; all articles of food, fuel, and clothing are abundant and moderate in price. They see around them numerous examples
* It may be mentioned as an instance of their habits of joint speculation, that in the parish of St. Just the property in each of about 48 fishing-boats, kept chiefly by miners who are fathers of families, is divided into eight shares; some of which are again subdivided ; so that upwards of 500 men have an interest, varying in amount, in these boats, and receive from them their proportion of fish caught by themselves and their comades. The abundance of leisure they enjoy enables them to take advantage of tides and weather for this occupation.
P
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of individuals from their own ranks in every stage of progress towards independence and well-being; many possessing cottages and land, many placed in honourable and responsible situations in the mines, many who have risen to still higher points of social elevation. The hours of labour for those who work underground, including the time occupied in the descent and ascent, are usually eight, and for those who work in the deepest mines seldom more than six, in the 24; all the rest of their time, with the exception of what may be employed in sharpening their tools, and in going to or returning from the mine, they have to themselves. The hours of work on the surface, for those who prepare the ore for the market, are 57 per week in the summer, and 51 in the winter; or, on an average, nine and a half and eight and a half hours per day, in which they earn full wages. The changes for those who work eight hours at a time take place at 6 A.M., 2 P.m., and 10 P.M.; for those who work six hours, at 6 and 12, of day and night. By this arrangement every man has always a portion, and, in his turn, the whole, of the day at command. The changes from night to day work are made weekly. Those engaged on the surface, men, women, and children, leave work at half-past four or five, according to the season of the year. Although this great and inestimable advantage of leisure is far from being made as good use of as it ought to be, and by very many is entirely wasted, its natural and insensible effects on the miner's character are considerable. His labour is severe while it lasts ; but not being oppressed by lengthened, continuous, and unrelieved toil, his mind and strength, until disease attacks him, have time to recover their elasticity. He has the daily recurring period of repose, and theofily opportunity of reflection. His powers of thought are not more exercised by the nature of his employment than by the collision of mind and frequent interchange of ideas resulting from the aggregation of numbers and leisure for conversing His air is free and unconstrained, and his address intelligent and respectful; he is disposed to cheerfulness and social enjoyment. Music and dancing are the common accompaniments of the Parish Feast, which is held in every parish once a year, and is kept as a holiday for two or three successive days. All who belong to the parish endeavour to return to it on that occasion, and almost every house and cottage is full of guests. If his fondness for social meetings leads to extravagance, it is chiefly on the pay-nights, which occur once a month. Large assemblages then take place in the beer-houses, partly in order to obtain change, and to divide their wages. It is to be regretted that, as the result in some degree of this additional temptation, much money is still squandered in this manner, and excesses of various kinds ensue ; nor, perhaps, would any regulation be attended with more beneficial effects than one which should ensure a more frequent settlement of wages, and, as far as pos
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sible, with each individual separately. To cases of poverty and distress much benevolent sympathy is shown; subscriptions are readily raised among themselves, and assistance given in articles of food or in the performance of domestic offices where required. * Great patience is exhibited in periods of privation, whether proceeding from the stoppage of a mine, from a decline in the price of ore, from unsuccessful speculation, or other causes. The high standard of comfort and sufficiency which prevails among the more fortunate of the mining class appears to have had the effect of raising it among the whole body. In the cottage of the poorest may generally be seen evidences of an attention to self-respect, and an effort to produce an air of comfort; notwithstanding a deficiency of proper accommodation in proportion to the number of inmates ;—a fertile source of much obvious evil. The amount of crime throughout the county is still small in proportion to population, and is chiefly confined to petty thefts. Crimes of any enormity are rare, and when, unfortunately, they occur, as in a recent instance, they produce a deep impression. The reality of this feeling was exhibited, in the instance adverted to, by a subscription to a large amount, raised chiefly in small sums within a few months, for the widow of the sufferer. Nevertheless, it would appear, from the criminal returns, that crime is increasing in a ratio much greater than that of the increase of population.
* " Yet this much I confess of the wealthiest of tynners which happily work together in one tyn-worke with the poore man,—they are very charitable and merciful towards their poore fellow-workers, for at dinnertime, when they sit down together beside their tyn-worke, in a little lodge made up with turfes covered with straw, and made herut with handsome benches to sit upon, then every tynner bringeth forth out of his scrip or tyn bagges his victuals, his bread, and bottle of drinke, as the rich tynners will lack none of them being left in number; then is their charitie so great, that if one, two, or three, or else more poore men, sit among them, having neither bread, drinke, or other repast, there is not one amongst all the rest but will distribute at the largest sorte with their poore workfellows which have nothing; so that in the end this poore man, having nothing to relieve him at the worke, shall in fine be better furnished of bread, cheese, butter, beefe, porke, bacon, than all the richest sorte.” Extract given by Sir Charles Lemon (Statistical Journal, vol. i. p. 71, Statistics of the Copper Mines of Cornwall) from an old manuscript book, intituled The Bailiff of Blackmore, supposed to have been written at the commencement of the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
4 Proportion of offenders to population, calculated on the census of 1831. Criminal Returns.
1834.
1835.
England and Wales
Cornwall
1 in 619
1 in 1406
1 in 631
1 in 1461
The proportion was less in three English counties only for the first, and in four for the last year given, viz.-Northumberland, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Durham.
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Extract from the Criminal Returns for the County of Cornwall, for the Years following :
The great increase in the last three years, particularly in those under 16 years of age, compared with those convicted in the three previous years, is worthy of consideration.
The statistics of education among criminals are thus given in the recent Report of the Registrar-General :
For the law they entertain respect in all cases, except those few in which the uprightness of their judgment is unhappily perverted by ancient and ignorant prejudice. It may be added that they are a loyal people. In regard to religion, the general and characteristic feeling is strongly devotional. Nevertheless, it is affirmed by those most capable of forming an opinion, that in many points of morality there is much laxity. In the seven parishes visited there are 12 churches and chapels belonging to the Establishment, and 56 chapels belonging to the different branches of the Wesleyan
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denomination. The members of the Baptist, or other Dissenting communities, are not numerous, although few adults would be found to confess that they did not frequent either church or chapel, without at the same time offering some excuse; yet it is asserted that by many the public ordinances of religion are neglected. In addition to the Public Prayer Meetings held at the chapels, usually twice or three times in the course of the week, there are private meetings in the cottages for singing and prayer, attended by miners and their families during the hours when they are absent from the mine. The result of inquiries in many cottages that were visited was that comparatively few were without either a Bible or a Testament, or a portion of one or the other. The prevalent religious feeling is exhibited, perhaps, in no circumstance more strongly than in their manner of performing the last offices for the dead. A procession, consisting of from 50 to 200 or 300 persons, decently attired, advances, singing appropriate hymns, at intervals, especially as they approach the church, and while the coffin rests at the entrance to the churchyard. General testimony seems to be borne to the correctness and sincerity of the feeling which sanctions and maintains this ancient cus
Nevertheless it is to be feared that the solemnity of the occasion is too often forgotten in subsequent excesses. Superstitions, though on the decline, are still common; many, such as the belief in the power of charms, of an injurious tendency. Other similar notions maintain their hold, more harmless, perhaps, but not less belonging to the simplicity of an uninstructed age.
The terms in which the disposition and habits of the mining population were generally spoken of by those most conversant with them showed a cordial appreciation of their favourable characteristics, and at the same time a desire to see their deficiencies supplied and their faults corrected.*
If this is to be attempted, it must be to a great extent through the instrumentality of elementary schools.
To all the places of worship of the Establishment, and to most of those of the other denominations, Sunday-schools are attached, and appeared, as far as my observation could extend, to be well frequented. Various causes prevented any accurate estimate being formed of the numbers attending the Sunday schools, relatively to the whole number of children of these respective parishes. But the impression seemed to be general that a very large proportion of the children of the labouring class do, at some time or other, attend these schools, and have from time to time received some part of their instruction from them. Inability to provide shoes or proper clothing was said to be the excuse commonly urged by parents for omitting to send their
* The general characteristics of the agricultural are in many respects very similar to those of the mining population.
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children. The exertions of the numerous teachers, belonging chiefly to the labouring class, are very considerable, in endeavouring to increase the number of attendants at these schools, and in imparting, to the extent of their ability, the rudiments of religious knowledge. Many instances of great and persevering devotion to this duty fell under my observation, But it seemed to be allowed that the results of the attention thus applied, though not without great value, often fell far short of the objects proposed to be obtained. These objects may be said to be to implant in the mind of the young the principles of the Christian Faith, to inspire a sense of its sacred duties and obligations, to impart some general acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and to secure an attachment to the particular religious profession in which the child is brought up. In very many cases it may be believed that these important results follow the teaching in these schools; but in many others it is to be feared that they are used simply as a means of learning to read; that the repetition of a catechism, or even the fluent reading of the words of Holy Writ, imply very little comprehension of the principles to be conveyed or the lessons taught; and that no lasting impression is made in favour of the particular doctrines inculcated, or the mode of worship for a time pursued. It is readily confessed that of the number of children who in these parishes receive their early instruction at the Sunday-schools of the Establishment, comparatively few continue to frequent the church after the age of attending the school is past. The books generally observed in these schools were, with few exceptions, of the most elementary kind, and the Bible and Testament. It was evident that many more were wanted for the purposes of the illustration and explanation both of the Scriptures and of the services of the church, especially for the use of those who acted as teachers. In one Sunday-school only were maps occasionally used, together with prints that threw light on the Sacred History, and imparted an additional interest by giving a fuller knowledge of the subject. In many of the schools, especially in those of the Wesleyans, some of the children learnt, in the course of the week, many well-selected passages of Scripture. The teachers met together at stated times to study the portion fixed upon as the lesson for the ensuing Sunday. It was a part also of their duty to encourage the attendance of the children within a district assigned to each. A doubt may, perhaps, be expressed whether the attendance would not, after a time, be more regular, if the common plan of rewarding children for regularity, by giving tickets, or otherwise, were discontinued. It would seem that the tendency of such a practice can be no other than to weaken the sense of duty in the mind both of the child and parent. A greater appreciation of the value of these opportunities of instruction might also, perhaps, be awakened by requiring some payment, however small. In one or two schools the assistance of a paid
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teacher, of skill and ability, has raised the character and value of the instruction much above the ordinary level.
I am able to say that, in those parts of the mining district where additional day-schools are required, a disposition exists to encourage their formation.
There are many circumstances in the condition of this population on which the instruction and the example derivable from good elementary schools would be likely to bear with beneficial effect. The daily oral* lecture, as given in the most improved day-schools, tested by questions,or by writing its substance on the slate, could not fail of its usual result in awakening intelligence and a taste for knowledge. Directed in this manner by a competent master, the child is led to embrace in a clear and comprehensive view the leading facts of Scripture history, their relation to each other, and the position they occupy in the gradual develop ment of the great scheme of Revelation. When thus unfolded, the doctrines of the Christian faith, as conveyed by catechetical instruction, find a readier entrance to the understanding and the heart. Appropriate illustration of manners, customs, localities, give to the study of the Bible thus conducted a more vivid and enduring interest. The elements of general history, and of that of our own country, conveyed in this manner—the facts of physical geography, and their effects on the occupations of men and the general condition of society-compendious accounts of various objects of natural history-a short investigation into the principles on which society is founded, and those which govern the distribution and remuneration of labour, and the state of trade and commerce—these and other similar subjects of universal interest, and of which no man can be left in entire ignorance without the risk of injury to himself or to society from the adoption of false impressions, would, when presented in the manner indicated, probably find a reception in many other minds than those of the children to whom they would be primarily addressed. The active-minded and intelligent, but yet very partially instructed, mining population of this country, would not be backward in participating in the ideas and tastes thus imparted to their children. The great opportunities of leisure—the best and greatest opportunities of self-culture possessed by any portion of the population of Great Britain-would be rightly estimated, duly prized as the great blessing of their existence, and earnestly and diligently turned to account. By the guidance of stricter principles, by the resources of purer and more elevated tastes, how many of their present temptations to vice and improvidence would be combated, how much occasional distress and permanent suffering avoided, how much useful direction received !-that especially which makes it one of the leading objects of moral and intellectual improvement, not to raise the individual from his own sphere, but to
* The Gallery Lesson.
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enable him to do his duty in that to which he belongs. Also, in addition to the consolations of religion, the miner would find, in intellectual resources, a relief which would lighten the pressure of lingering disease, hitherto apparently the almost inevitable lot that awaits him.
In matters of calculation, arising out of their work underground, the near approximations to accuracy with which the labouring miners, very few of whom have any knowledge of figures, arrive at the required results, is remarkable. In the more simple instances of measurement, which for the tutworkman are the most common, a process of mental calculation, rendered tolerably correct by long habit, sufficiently serves his purpose. But where the space cut through is broader or higher than usual, or consists of irregular quantities of fathoms, feet, and inches, he is rarely able to calculate the sum due to himn for his work, and must either depend on one of his comrades, or on some person employed for the purpose. The calculations which the tributer is required to make in ascertaining the value of his portion of the ore raised are still more complicated; particularly that of the allotment of the sum produced by the sales of many parcels differing in value. The nature of these calculations may be seen from the following example :
TUTWORK Pay for SEPTEMBER, 1840.
£. $. d. £.
S.
d. s. d. £. $. d. s. d. s. d. £. s. d. 6 2 32 0 4 8 4 8 1 6 23 14 2 11 6 1 6 23 1 2 12 2 52 14 8 5 15 9 3 0 46 15 11 23 0 3 0 45 9 11 4 1 14 6 84 S 8 1 0 9 17 0 4 6 10 911 6 6 2 29 9 6 10 6 1 6 22 17 911 01 6 22 5 3 4 1 18 18 3 5 2 4 1 0 13 14 11 6 6 10 13 7 5
TRIBUTERS' GETTINGS.
Men. | Months.
Gettings.
Cost.
Sub-
Dressing sistence.
D. C.
Pay. Club. Balance.
£. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. s.d. £. S.
d. s. d. £. s. d. 42 39 12 9 9 1 86 5 012 1 02 012 3 112 011 11 1 5 2 49 16 9 15 1 36 8 0 12 8 0 2 615 ñ 0 14 0 15 30 22 20 10 9 2 19 112 7 6 4 10 01 010 12 2 7 6 10 4 81 4 1 15 8 9 3 7 21 14 6 4 0 0 1 0 6 6 1 5 0 6 1 1 4119 6 9 3 16 32 14 6 5 0 01 07 15 0 6 3 7 8 0
£. $.
£.
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Hugh James. FOWEY CONSOLIDATED MINES. 13th June, 1840.
March Ores. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Per Ton.
Amount.
Increase. 6 7 3 at £4 4 0... £26 15 0... £1 0 0 Real amount £:26 15 () at 13s. 4d. from 20s.
d.
d. 18 10 0 Cash
7 0 0 Smith's Cost
0 8 10 Dressing Cost
1 14 8 2 Men, Club 3s., Doctor ls.
0 4 0 18 lbs. of Candles at 8d.
0 12 0 50 lbs. Powder at
1 13 4 3 Hilts
0 0 9
Shovels.
Shovel-Hilts
Ibs. Hoop-Iron
Barrows
Barrel
Sieve and Handles
Riddle and Handles
lbs. Tallow
Copper Nails
Brooms,
Washing-Tub
Powder-Cans
Kebble and Ropes .
Coils Sump Rod
Slings
Carriage
Railing
0 5 11
lbs, Nails
Oil
120 feet Safety-Rod
0 5 0
Tar .
Paper
Grinding)
Drawing
.
.
.
.
2 2 5 at 6s. 8d. per ton Durding Assaying Subsist
-14 17 11
3 12 1
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John Francis and Co. Fower Consols Mines. 27th June, 1840.
Pay for May Month.
Drawing from the 150 fms. level East of Bothall's Shaft on
Bothall's Lode.
Fm. Ft. In.
£. $. d. 2 0 0 at 130s.
13 0
0 2 0 0 at 150s.
15 0 0 0 3 0 at 140s.
3 10 0
.
.
£.
9 0
0 15
0 9
0
0 2 0 0
}6 {
Deduct Cash
Smith's Cost.
Club
Men
Doctor
Spale.
62 lbs. Candle at 5d.
100 lbs. of Powder at
Pick-Hilts
Shovel
Shovel-Hilts.
Barrow
Barrel
Copper Nail
Powder-Can.
Paper
Hoop-Iron
Tallow lbs.
Slings
Pitch.
lbs. Nails
Kebble and Rope
Safety-Rod, feet
Sump-Rod, 17 coils
.
.
::
0 0 3
0 19 10
17 0 2
14 9 10
Taking into consideration the fact that every miner, and the family of every miner, has a direct interest in the accuracy of these calculations, and also that many of them are by no means simple, the expediency of leaning so much in this particular on the acquirements of others may be doubted. But as respects domestic management, the ill effects of not having the power to make calculations by figures, and to keep proper accounts, seem very readily traceable, in an improper distribution of expenditure -in a want of provision against recurring demands—in debts and embarrassments, that become the more harassing in proportion to the inability to represent accurately in figures the probable resources available to meet them. It appeared to be a common and very natural opinion, that the uneasy feeling resulting from
...
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ignorance in these simple matters tended in no slight degree to perpetuate improvidence.--(Vide Appendix II.)
It is not improbable that the example of intelligent and well-trained masters would act in various ways upon the conduct of the parents. The power of gentle means and moral influence is very little known to the latter in the management of their children. Severity and indulgence, alike capricious, are the usual modes of government. Authority appears to have a precarious hold; and, on the other hand, the bonds of affection and duty are often relaxed at a very early period. In the well-regulated school the parent would see the image of a well-regulated family; and it might be hoped that the deportment and modes of discipline of the one might pass insensibly into the other.
Vocal music is much attended to in their chapels. It is also much practised as a recreation. Singing, chiefly of a devotional character, is often heard in the cottages. The children may be heard singing at their
work at the mine, and the men while going down the ladders. Facilities for learning music from notation would perhaps be embraced with some readiness, especially if it was found to make them acquainted with rich and impressive compositions. It may be mentioned as a recent occurrence in one of the mining parishes, that a certain number of individuals having agreed to appropriate towards a musical society the sums they had been in the habit of expending monthly in beer, they are now possessed of musical instruments of the value of 401., and are gradually increasing the number of their members.
That they are fond of the productions of art, as far as they have the opportunity of appreciating them, may be inferred from the prints and other objects which may be seen in almost every cottage. If those objects can in general convey no ideas of correct taste or of beauty of form, they are at least the only specimens of the imitative arts which fall within their reach. The habit of accurate observation, the appreciation of correct outline and proportion, acquired by drawing from just and simple models at the school, would give a right direction to this natural feeling. What the church in earlier ages was to the surrounding population, in respect of art, such, in its sphere, might the school be now. While addressing the uninstructed through the eye, the objects of art, which enriched the church, gave to all who beheld them a familiarity with productions from which the mind was enabled to receive an elevation and refinement.
The fondness of the miner for exhibitions of strength has long made wrestling a favourite and characteristic amusement. Meetings for this purpose sometimes take place under the superintendence of individuals of some influence in their neighbourhoods. If these meetings have, however, been generally discouraged, partly in consequence of the accidents and disasters to which they often gave rise, the taste for athletic exercises might perhaps receive a
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harmless direction from the introduction of gymnastics, as now practised at elementary schools, for recreation and the development of muscular power.
Garden cultivation, wherever united to schools, in addition to its value in teaching how to make the most of the cottage-garden, in the management of vegetables, herbs, and flowers, would be further useful, if taken advantage of as a means of instruction in the method of keeping strict and orderly accounts; the habit of which it might tend to create. Something of shoemaking, tailoring, and carpentering, might be occasionally taught out of school-hours: the two first, for a very moderate remuneration, by persons disabled for any better employment; the last by the schoolmaster himself. Many of the miners now learn to mend their own shoes and those of their family; some few are able to mend their own clothes. The opportunity of learning thus much of those trades for future domestic use might operate as an additional inducement with some parents to send their children to school.
Among the greatest advantages which would result to the labouring population from the improvement of the elementary schools would be that of the more complete and practical training of the female children. These can seldom write, and not often read. At the period of marriage they are rarely able to make their own dresses, and are often unable to sew. Of other female duties they know very little. If, from various causes, the old domestic sources of instruction in these simple matters no longer exist, their place cannot be too soon supplied by other means. A skilful mistress, when residing in a building attached to the day-school, has opportunities of imparting just notions and habits in regard to many details of domestic management, together with practical lessons in keeping accounts; while, at the same time, appropriate industrial teaching of other kinds, and a due proportion of mental cultivation, are not neglected. In the less laborious parts of garden culture the girls would usefully participate.
The comparatively full and regular attendance of children at the few elementary schools at which the opportunities of good instruction are somewhat improved, and the payments continue moderate, together with the slightly increasing attendance of adults at the evening-schools opened by the masters of a portion of them, may perhaps be noticed as favourable indications. It is probable that advice and encouragement from the proper quarters might do much to fuster this disposition. From no quarter would suggestions of this nature come with more effect than from the mine agents. The influence of this intelligent body of men is great. On their judgment and skill depends for the most part the whole arrangement of each mine. Their opinion is taken with regard, among other matters, to the direction in which the lode is to be followed, the levels which are to be driven, and the shafts sunk, in searching for ore, or opening communications, the machinery
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required, and the most desirable spot for its application, the number of men to be employed, and the sum per fathom or per cent. on the produce of the ore, which, after personal inspection of the work to be done, it appears reasonable to offer. It is a part of their duty to become acquainted with the character of the men, and their skill as workmen. Having, in general, been working men themselves, they have acquired a thorough knowledge of all the details of a miner's life. Their natural intelligence and ability are not more conspicuous than the considerate benevolence which they show, as far as opportunities offer, towards the sick or convalescent, towards the children of the disabled, or of those otherwise placed in difficulties, in cases which admit of judicious interposition.* Whatever measures have in view the benefit of the labouring miner or his children must at first owe much of their success to the representations and encouragement of the mine agents, whose opinions have naturally much weight with those under them. And although the varieties of opinion were great among them, as to the necessity or value to themselves or their employers of a higher degree of scientific instruction-opinions natural to men who, with so small an amount of science, have succeeded, by natural intelligence, long experience, and at great cost to their employers, in raising the mines to their present state-I found no difference of opinion as to the necessity and value of an improved kind of elementary schools. Some characteristics of the county seem also to afford ground to hope that encouragement and aid from other classes would not be withheld. In any matter which recommends itself to the general opinion of the county, a unity of action among all classes appears still to be occasionally manifested. In such cases the Cornish motto, “One and All," may be recognised as still possessing some degree of vitality. In binding society together by the ties of common feelings and mutual understanding, it may be asserted that no institutions would have a much more effectual influence than well-devised elementary schools ; by manifesting to the labouring classes an interest in their welfare and a sympathy with their wants—by aiding them to acquire just principles, clear knowledge, undebasing enjoyments--by giving a righi direction to their good qualities and their virtues, and by assisting them to obtain dominion over their vices. This county is still apparently in the position that evils may here be checked at their birth which elsewhere are threatening to disturb the social system. Nevertheless, general causes, which perhaps reach remote localities last, do not cease in their advance towards them, and signs of uneasiness and dislocation have not been wanting even here.
* It is necessary to record the impression that the smaller mines were unfavourably distinguished from the larger, both in respect to the quality of the superintendents, and the attention paid to the condition and comforts of the men.
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The attention of the county has been lately much directed to an important branch of education, by a proposal submitted to the mining capitalists by an Honourable Baronet
, Sir Charles Lemon, one of the members for the western division of the county.
In order to present this proposal in its proper light, it is requisite briefly to state some circumstances connected with its origin.
In the year 1834 a sum of 40001. was raised in the county by subscriptions to perpetuate by some public testimonial the memory of the late Right Honourable Lord De Dunstanville. The mode of applying this sum became a matter of discussion, and it was suggested by Sir Charles Lemon that a portion of it should be devoted to founding an elementary school, in which those branches of science should be taught which were most applicable to mining operations. Some formal difficulties, however, prevented the execution of this project; and Sir Charles Lemon, impressed with the desirableness of providing improved means of scientific instruction in a country which depended so directly on science for the maintenance of its prosperity, volunteered to take upon himself the expense of supporting for two years, as an experiment, a school in which instruction should be given by superior masters on the subjects of the greatest practical utility in the pursuits of mining. Accordingly, in the beginning of 1839, a prospectus was distributed in the mining districts, signifying the amount of preliminary acquirement which would form the necessary preparation for the principal course, proposed to be commenced at Truro in the month of July in that year, by Professors Hall and Moseley, of King's College, London, and in the chemical department by Mr. Prideaux, of Plymouth. The preparatory instruction was to be given at Truro by a gentleman (Mr. Dickinson) well versed in the practical applications of science. It comprised algebra, the elements of geometry, practical land and mine surveying, and the construction of geological plans and sections; and the time occupied in each year by him was nearly three months. The fee for the course was one guinea. It was attended by 16 boys. The tirst principal course, from the beginning of July to the end of September, 1839, was attended by 16 boys. The second, during the same months in 1840, by 13 boys. The payments for these were 61. each. Board and lodging at houses in the town, carefully selected by the governors of the school, were a further charge to each boy of about 7s. per week. At the termination of the second principal course, a public examination took place at Truro on the 4th September last, in the presence of several scientific persons, the greater part of whom were engineers, or otherwise connected with mines. The ages of the boys were from 13 to 16. The amount of instruction which had been generally received previously to their attendance on Mr. Dickenson and the professors was chiefly confined to the four first rules of arithmetic, with some knowledge of fractions. Copies of the printed order of examina
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tion, and of the list of subjects, are given in the Appendix (A and B). The questions selected by the committee, by whom alone the blanks were filled up and the terms chosen, and to which, during the three hoars allotted t& the examination, the answers were returned, are shown in the paper marked C (Appendix).
The rapidity and accuracy with which these results were worked out was highly satisfactory to those present, and valuable in another point of view than merely as a test Siceroyal proficiency. " afforded an example of what could eu o tin & boys of the class to which they bel... the cail and teaching of superior masters.
At the conclusion of the exami leiteri ithin " To the Lords, Adventurers, and you interested in lining 1 Civil Engineering,” was read to the let It al this letter contains the munificent vil vi b Gila !!!! or if necessary 20,0001., for the en
nt of a ning to Truro, with the further offer of a su. it site for tie jung,
d 5001. to the building fund. It pr pinnes tisu ihat a m: 1.3 limited in its operation to 12 years, la belesier Oliterie ic minerals of the county, to make tematy ISION 1:7 il. of the professors, and for current e:
The letter marked E (Append. III bow the rest application to the Adventurers at t ir veral nieftinoga, usit the view of ascertaining their opinions that ore proposal. i. 'isy, after their reply, it was not thoug Ders to make a plication to the Lords of mines. i
I pare naked Pio
x) shows the manner in which it !
11:16e de governing body of the school; a 1 .O ille plait ***1713 to have been approved of. I am enab, i 4 star that the tilf, and in its unequal operation on Li, 21 Arise thares o ali ost exclusively the ground of objectic... by the A; Hers in the answers returned. A majo'., o per dveltuin
ag declined acceding to the proposed lasteh Sul Charles liens I's offer having been in consequence withdrawa. it may not aps be undesirable to advert to a fev vi the opinions and tags which prevailed on the subject. ta these I became a fut si ed
' in the course of iny inquiries in in the state of the ele de sury education of the mining populati 1., during which I was je to frequent communication for som Waits with muciivisis call classes engaged or interested in mi anno whom 'hesped school, and the generous offer of - Charles I - s011, :e quiestions of frequent consideration au 501011.
An appreciation was discernibit of the greatures, and liar lity of intention which proposed to delete al ple to
! the service of the county. It dii not ansill chal, 01:31 11 to how great a degree the existence fb,
chies in the Pies late resulted from the application of science, there was any strong feeling against enlarging the opportunities of its acquirement.
p
...
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If such a feeling exist at all, may be expected rapidly to give way to a conviction, commonly wpressed, that increasing foreign competition, and the increasing coth of the present to the Adventurers the imperative necessum ut seeking
r and applvirra every new aid that science can afford. The su inefrom a published letter appears to place in so crear a light the practical advantages which might be expected from the application of a higher degree of scientific knowledge to mining and its kindred operations, that it may be allowable to insert it in this place :
“ We might well hesitate to encourage the proposed course of instruction, if it were not eminently practical in its nature, instead of that which is merely conventional or speculative, and too often relied on. Can we have too many facilities for distinguishing the different strata in their mineralogical relations, for ascertaining the direction and contents of the included veins, the nature of their produce, and the most efficient mode of exploring them? The drainage, whether by steam or water power, including the dimensions and placing of the engine, the economy of fuel, the preservation of the boilers, and the arrangement of the pit-work, to be accomplished with certainty, must be founded on sound mathematical and mechanical, and, I might add, chemical principles. And when the strength of materials shall have been correctly calculated, and the sinking of shafts in the right places, the blasting, lighting, and ventilation of the mine, and the descent and ascent of the miners perfected, and the ores are at length " at grass,” can we yet decide on the best mode of dressing them ? Can no improvements be made in crushing, stamping, or calcining ? Can we from practice, or from any analytical skill at hand, at once determine what ores are sufficiently rich in iron, manganese, silver, arsenic, cobalt, chrome, zinc, or sulphur, to warrant our pursuit or selection of them? The best mode of separating many of these substances, to say nothing of the smelting of our inferior copper ores, is still to be learned. Has not Pattison, by his scientific skill, added more than 20,0001. per annum the value of the lead ores of England, and reduced the expense of extracting the silver by two-thirds ? I assert, without fear of contradiction, that, however desirable the division of labour, and however conversant the mine agent may be with a few or more of his pursuits, circumstances constantly arise in which his experience alone will not guide him.
" I gladly admit that many of our engines and mining works, partly the result of the strong necessity, and the enormous expenditure, and the scale in which innumerable trials were made, are models for imitation, and that we possess many men of genius and industry who, after having laboriously groped their way for years, have given to their undertakings the touches of a master's hand. But in the interval how much has been lost to the county in the relinquishment of deep mines ! And if we could analyze the long
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mental process, it would be seen how fargely these men had imbibed, from time to time, the important truths developed by educated minds of deep thought.
“ It must not be forgotten that this experience has often been obtained at a great expenditure of life, time, and money. If, in the healing art, the uneducated at length attain considerable proficiency, still the veil must be drawn over the death and suffering which marked his progress ; so in mining, the apprenticeship has often cost the Lords ihe abandonment of valuable veins, and the Adventurers sums varying from 1001. to 50001., and without the benefit to be derived from communicating generally the causes of failure or ultimate success."
No serious doubt seems to be generally entertained, that, if to the advantages of long and daily experience were added the guidance and assistance derivable from an exact and extensive knowledge of the principles of many branches of science, a large number of those engaged in mining, or in matters connected with it, would be armed with an increased force, most useful in reference to their own immediate objects, and opening the most direct way to future improvements.* The expressions of dissent from the proposal of Sir Charles Lemon appeared to be chiefly directed against the mode suggested for providing those increased facilities. It has been seen that the small temporary tax has been to a great extent the alleged ground of its rejection. Other reasons, which need not be here stated, were probably felt to operate toward the same end. As to the sources from which any schools, elementary or scientific, of enlarged scope and on improved methods, might expect to derive adequate and permanent support, opinion was not matured. It is very doubtful whether a certain and adequate amount of income could be insured to them from voluntary payments. It might be expected, for some time at least, to be rendered precarious by the indifference of the greater part of those for whom a better kind of instruction was most required, by their unwillingness, notwithstanding the advice and encouragement that might be offered, to make a sacrifice for such an object, and by the great and continued fluctuations to which it has been shown that, from various causes, the earnings of the labouring miners are liable. But on a question with respect to which such difference of opinion still prevails among the parties interested, it is perhaps most advisable to abstain from entering further into details. The expression of an earnest hope may, however, be
* It may be mentioned, in illustration of the present deficiency of regular scientific instruction in the county, that, an endeavour having been recently made to procure from among the Cornish mining population a young man possessing competent theoretical as well as practical knowledge, to be attached, as geologist and practical miner, to the commercial expedition about to proceed to the River Niger, no one having the requisite qualifications could be obtained.
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permitted, that a subject placed before the country in so favourable a light by the recent experiment of Sir Charles Lemon, and to the just appreciation of which he has already so generously contributed, will not be henceforward overlooked, although the Honourable Baronet's muniticent offer towards the further prosecution of it has been necessarily withdrawn. By what instrumentality it may appear most expedient that the object aimed at should be attempted on any future occasion, whether by means of an institution on the footing of the one lately proposed, in the locality there indicated, or in one nearer to one of the chief seats of mining operations, it is not necessary here to express an opinion. It may be expected that an increasing conviction of the value of improved means of general elementary education, as well as of scientific instruction with reference to mining, will continue to direct the current of public attention towards, and more and more to mature, opinion with regard to these urgent and important considerations.*
I cannot conclude this Report without expressing my sense of the ready and obliging kindness with which my inquiries were seconded, often at much personal sacrifice of time and exertion, by all classes and individuals to whom I applied for information. I feel bound in an especial manner to acknowledge the attention of the clergy in contributing to make me acquainted with the educational, moral, and social condition of their respective parishes, and that of the mine agents, in freely laying open to me, and procuring from others, many and various particulars relating to the mines, and to those employed in them.
The observations which I have thought requisite to make on the information collected, and which I have now to request you to lay before their Lordships, will, I trust, be found strictly to be connected with, and to grow out of, the educational inquiry.
I have, &c. (Signed)
SEYMOUR TREMENHEERE.
* I may be permitted to add a copy of a document, dated 1792, and signed by some of the leading mine adventurers of that day. It will be accepted as a proof that at that period science was cordially recognised as the best auxiliary and guide towards successful mining.
“At a meeting of several agents, captains, and others concerned in mines, and members of various societies formed for the encouragement of science, from which the community at large have received great advantage, it was submitted that a society formed for the general improvement of mining would not only cause the present mines to be worked in a better manner, but would tend to future discoveries, to the great emolument of the lords, adventurers, and the commercial interest of the county.”
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APPENDIX I.
A.--MINING SCHOOL, September 14, 1840.
ORDER OF EXAMINATION, 1. A committee of the gentlemen present will be requested to superintend the examination.
2. The committee will select, with the concurrence of the meeting, from the printed list of the subjects of examination, those in which they are desirous to ascertain the knowledge of the students.
3. The professors will receive any problems which the scientific gentlemen present may be desirous to submit to the students, in respect to the subjects of examination which have been selected by the committee.
4. The professors, with the concurrence of the committee, will determine upon the forms of the problems to be submitted to the students, leaving the data on which the particular solution of each problem depends to be filled in by the committee.
5. The committee will fill in the data required for the solution of the problems determined upon by the professors, and in doing so will receive the suggestions of any of the gentlemen present.
6. The problems so completed will be read to the meeting. 7. The students will undertake (in writing), under the inspection of the committee, the solution of the problems proposed to them.
8. The meeting will separate, and will re-assemble at four o'clock to inspect the solution of the problems, and to receive the report of the committee upon them.
9. The prizes will be awarded.
10. The proposition of Sir Charles Lemon, for the permanent establishment of a mining college in Cornwall, will then be read to the meeting
B.-MINING SCHOOL EXAMINATION,
September 14, 1840.
MATHEMATICS. 1. The first four rules of algebra. 2. The extraction of the square root of algebraical expressions.
The greatest common measure. 3. Solution of equations, and of problems arising from them.
lst, Simple and quadratic equations of one unknown
quantity. 2nd, Equations and problems containing more than one
unknown quantity. 4. Arithmetical and geometrical progressions.
Expansions by the binomical theorem ; logarithms.
....
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5. Given the earth's diameter, and the height of an object above the horizon, to find the distance of the visible horizon.
6. Given the height of the object, and the distance of a point of the visible horizon from it, to find the earth's diameter.
7. Definition of trigonometrical terms.
8. Formulas for the sine, cosine, and tangent of the sum, and difference of two arcs.
9. Given two sides of a triangle and the angle included, find the area of the triangle.
10. Given the three sides of a triangle, find its area.
11. The solution of right-angled and of oblique-angled triangles.
1st, Given two sides and the included angle.
2nd, Given two angles, and a side opposite one of the
angles.
12. Application to heights and distances.
1st, Height of an accessible object.
2nd, Height of an inaccessible object.
3rd, Distance between two objects inaccessible to each
other, but accessible from the point of observation.
4th, Distance between two inaccessible objects. 13. Examples of simple differentiation, vanishing fractions, maxima and minima.
STATICS. 1. The principle of the parallelogram of pressures. 2. The principle of the equality of moments. 3. The resultant of any number of pressures. 4. The composition and resolution of pressures. 5. The centre of gravity. 6. Friction. 7. The pulley, and wheel and axle, taking into account the friction of the axes.
8. The equilibrium of a body on an inclined plane, taking into account friction. 9. The equilibrium of a pier.
DYNAMICS. 1. Definition of the unit of work.
2. To show that when m lbs. are raised n feet high, m multiplied by n units of work are done.
3. To show that the work done under a variable pressure is represented by the area of a curve, whose abscissæ represent the spaces described, and its ordinates the corresponding pressures.
4. To apply Simson's rule for finding the area of such a curve.
5. To find the number of units of work done upon the piston of a steam-engine, by the steam, at every period of the stroke when working expansively.
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6. To explain fully the advantage of working expansively, and to calculate the amount of that advantage in any case.
7. Knowing the pressure of the steam before expansion, and the length of the stroke, to find the load upon the piston; and conversely, knowing the load and the expansion, to find the pressure per square inch before expansion.
8. Knowing the pressure per square inch before expansion, the vacuum resistance, the length of the stroke, and the load, independently of friction, to determine the friction, and to determine the friction of the piston separately.
9. Steam being admitted under a given load, at a given pressure, and cut off at a given point, to determine whether it will expand through the whole stroke.
10. Knowing the pressure at which steam is admitted, the point where it is cut off, the dimensions of the piston, the mass moved, and the load, to find the velocity of the piston at any period of the stroke, and its greatest velocity.
11. Knowing the section of a stream, and the velocity at the surface in the middle, to find the mean velocity.
12. Knowing as above, and the fall, to find the horse-power of a wheel of a given modulus, and the quantity of water which it will raise per minute, out of its own channel (above the fall) to a given heiglit.
13. Knowing the lift and weight of each stamper raised by an engine or a wheel of given horse-power, and the distance from the axis to the extremity of each cap, to find the number of stampers which will be raised per minute, allowing for the friction of the cap upon the tongue of the stamper, and of the stamper upon the guides.
14. To determine the loss of work by the friction of the axis of a water-wheel, having given the height of the fall and dimensions of the wheel, and the distance at which the work is applied.
15. A body descends freely by gravity during any number of seconds ; to find the space in feet through which it falls.
16. To find the velocity which a body acquires in falling through a given height.
17. A body whose weight is w moves with a velocity of V feet per second, to show that the number of units of work accumulated in it, is represented by ** V 2.
18. Two balls of a given weight are fixed at the ends of a rod of given length, and made to revolve a given number of times per minute—what mean pressure are they capable of producing upon a punch which moves through a given distance ?
19. A fly-wheel is of a given diameter and given section, and revolves a given number of times per minute; to find how high it is capable of raising a given weight by its accumulated
power. 20. To find the number of units of work expended in raising material from any depth, including the weight of the rope.
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21. To find the number of units of work expended in raising the materials of a structure, including the ascent of the labourers; to find the same in reference to the expense of raising the materials of an excavation by a shaft.
22. To calculate the expense of the excavation, the elevation, and the removal of materials by hand-barrows, having given the form of the excavation, the distance to which the materials are to be carried, and the relation of the number of picks required to the number of shovels.
23. To determine the expenditure of work in ascending an inclined plane subject to friction, and the expense per ton of such an inclined plane on a railway.
24. To determine the velocity of a train of given weight up an inclined plane, subject to friction, knowing the power of the engine.
C.
Professor Hall then read the following list of questions :
The elevation of a tower is 30°, but if the observer advances 50 yards in a direct line to its base, the elevation is found to be 40°; find the height of the tower.
Find that number whose square root exceeds its fourth root by 12.
Explain the method of finding the distance between two inaccessible points.
The earth’s diameter being 7980 miles, a spectator at the height of 250 yards sees the light of a lighthouse in the horizon, the height of the lighthouse being 20 yards; find the distance of the lighthouse from the observer.
Find by Simson's method the area of a curve line drawn freely upon paper.
Steam is admitted at the pressure of 30lbs. on the square inch, the length of the stroke being 6 feet, and the steam is cut off at 2 feet; compare the quantity of steam expended with what would have been expended had there been no expansion.
Steam is admitted at a pressure of 341bs. per square inch, the. stroke 11 feet, and the steam is cut off at one-fifth of the stroke, the diameter of the piston is 80 inches, the mass moved is 200 tons; to determine the greatest velocity of the piston and the velocity at 8 feet of the stroke.
There is an excavation 50 feet long, 18 feet wide, 12 feet deep, to be removed to 150 feet; 3 pickmen are required to 2 shovellers; required the number of barrowmen and expense of work at 2s.
per day.
External diameter of a fly-wheel 20 feet, internal 19, thickness -5 of a foot, it revolves 8 times in a minute ; how high will it raise 100lbs. ?
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450 cubic feet of water run over a wheel 40 feet high; how many cubic feet of water will this raise to the height of 40 fathoms from top of fall, and how much is lost by taking it from the bottom, modulus 7?
Two balls, weighing 1} cwt. each, are placed at the ends of a bar 16 feet long; it is made to revolve 8 times in a minute ; what mean pressure is it capable of producing upon a punch working through a quarter of an inch plate ?
To determine the loss of work by the friction of the axis of a water-wheel, having given the height of the fall and the dimensions of the wheel, and the distance at which the work is applied, and supposing half the wheel to be filled with water.
There is an inclined plane whose inclination is 30° ; it is of wrought iron, and a cubical mass of wrought iron, whose edge is 6 feet; what must the pressure parallel to the inclined plane be, and what must the least pressure be, to draw it up the inclined plane ?
Let the mass of matter in the pit-work of a steam-engine be raised at the rate of 200 feet per minute, to find how high the body would ascend after the action of the engine had ceased : no friction.
A train, weighing 100 tons, is drawn up an inclined plane of 1 in 90, by an engine which works at 50-horse power, what is the velocity including friction ?
There were other questions proposed and solved by the pupils, but we have not thought it necessary to state them, as they were not equally difficult or practically interesting with the above.
D.-To the LORDS, ADVENTURERS, ENGINEERS, and others interested in MINING and Civil ENGINEERING.
Carclew, September 14, 1840. GENTLEMEN,–1 beg to bring to your recollection the following declaration made by me in October, 1838, with reference to the establishment of a mining-school in this county :-“ With a view to ascertain how far there is a real demand for such instruction, I will take on myself the expense and responsibility of an experimen' or two years, if I should find, on considering its details, that my plan offers a reasonable prospect of success; and if at the end of the two years the county shall take up the subject and carry it forward till my death, I will endow the institution in such a way as shall afford a reasonable hope of its permanence.”
One half of this engagement is now fulfilled, and it is for you to consider whether in any instances the instruction given in the mining-school is likely to be importantly beneficial to the students who have attended it, and to the great interests of the county. I must, however, remind you that this instruction has been hitherto
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necessarily wanting in continuity, without which no education can be complete. But I have been compelled to make choice between two evils—broken time, or inferior masters; an interrupted course of study, or the loss of the assistance of men capable of impressing the county with the weight of their talents, and under whom there should be no risk of perpetuating mediocrity by the
exhibition of a low standard of scientific knowledge. I have pre· ferred to make the sacrifice of time, and I hope that the value of
that sacrifice will be taken into account in estimating the proficiency of the students.
I now turn to the remaining part of my engagement, namely, that which is still prospective; and the following plan has suggested itself to me:1. That a college shall be erected at Truro, with an esta
blishment of professors and tutors. 2. That for the requisite buildings a sufficient sum shall be
raised by private subscription. I think that this sum
should be about 50001. 3. That for the salaries of the professors, and for the current
expenses, a tax of one-half farthing in the pound sterling
of value shall be levied on all metallic minerals through-
out the county. The machinery for collecting this tax
already exists; double the amount being now raised
from the same source for the maintenance of the Vice-
Warden's Court. I propose that the Bill legalizing this
impost should be limited in its operation to 12 years ;
after which time other means may be found for the pay-
ment of the salaries.
My contribution to this undertaking shall be as follows :-
1. A sufficient site for the buildings.
2. Five hundred pounds to the building fund.
3. I will, as far as I am able, provide that a sum of not less
than 10,0001. shall, at my death, be placed in the hands
of trustees, for the use of the college; and should this
sum ultimately prove insufficient for the
purpose contemplated, I am willing to make it 20,0001. The laws respecting mortmain may prevent my making this bequest
at the present moment absolute. The Mining College being intended for the common benefit of a population professing different religious opinions, I think it best to state at once the principles on which it appears to me desirable that religious instruction should be conducted in it; and I feel myself especially called upon to make this statement now, lest it should be thought hereafter that I should have attached conditions to my bequest which were not contemplated at the present time.
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That the college shall be essentially a Church-of-England establishment, the archdeacon of the district being ex-officio a member of the governing body, and a visitor of the college. That a knowledge of the Christian religion shall be required of all; but that perfect academical equality shall exist amongst the members of the college of whatever religious persuasion they may be.
That due provision shall be made for the religious instruction of those who belong to the Established Church in the principles of that church, and in conformity with her liturgy; but that Dissenters shall not be compelled to receive instruction in any doctrines, or to be obliged to attend any place of public worship, which their parents or guardians shall declare to be objectionable to them; provided always, that they do attend some place of public worship, and are, by their parents or guardians, placed under the superintendence of some minister approved of by them, who shall be responsible for their religious instruction, and shall certify to the same, as also to their attendance at Divine worship, to the governing body of the college; and that such certificate shall stand in the place of personal examination. Some
repugnance, I am well aware, will be found to the idea of a tax on the miners, however temporary; but an establishment, such as is contemplated, cannot prosper unless it be maintained by the county and at some public sacrifice; and the willing
to make this sacrifice is the test to which I now appeal, in order to determine the value and importance which, in the estimation of the county at large, belong to the object in view.
The above scheme for a college at Truro has been submitted to the Committee of Privy Council on Education, and to the Council of the Duchy of Cornwall, and has received from both their sanction and approbation. I have it also in my power to state that Her Majesty has been graciously pleased to signify her consent to the institution proposed, and has kindly expressed her hope that it may prove advantageous to an important class of her subjects in this her duchy.
It therefore only remains for the county to decide whether the advantages in prospect would be too dearly purchased by the temporary sacrifice to which I have referred; and steps will shortly be taken to obtain its decision, as a guide for future proceedings.
I have, &c. (Signed) CHARLES LEMON.
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E.-To the LORDS, ADVENTURERS, ENGINEERS, and others
interested in MINING.
Carclew, December 12, 1840. GENTLEMEN, I am now in possession of answers respecting the proposed mining-school from a large proportion of the mines of the county. The dissents, computed according to the contribution of each mine to the Stannary Courts, are represented by the sum of 4761.; the total contribution having been, in the year ending March 25, 1840, 19761. Other mines, not included in the above-mentioned dissents, have also passed resolutions adverse to the school, though they have not favoured me with an answer to my application to them; so that I may venture to assume that an absolute majority of the Adventurers have declared against accepting the offer made to them. Under these circumstances it is not necessary to make any application to the Lords of the mines, for it is only with the concurrence of both Lords and Adventurers that I should be willing to bring a Bill into Parliament placing any burden upon them; and no one, I trust, will accuse me of hastily abandoning a pledge by which I had bound myself if I withdraw, as I now do withdraw, my offer of contributing to the present establishment of a mining-school, and finally making an endowment for its maintenance hereafter. While this pledge existed, it was my duty, really and in earnest, to endeavour to persuade the county to accept an offer which I thought conducive to the prosperity of the mines ; but it is far from my wish to press that offer on an unwilling recipient, or to set up the authority of my opinion against that of a majority of the Adventurers.
Here, then, my engagement and my responsibility end. But the experience gained may yet be useful. The time may come when the value of technical education will be felt and acknowledged ; when it shall be thought of sufficient importance to justify a trifling tax; and when the county may be willing, by its own exertions, to support such a school as I have endeavoured to exhibit experimentally before it. With a view to assist any endeavours which may follow such a change of sentiment, I will take care that all papers and correspondence relating to the present undertaking shall be preserved in some place of public deposit, and rendered easily accessible whenever there may be occasion to reconsider the proceedings to which they relate.
I have, &c. (Signed)
CHARLES LEMON.
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F.-The PREAMBLE and some of the Clauses of a Bill proposed
to be brought into PARLIAMENT at the next Session. Whereas the general prosperity of the county of Cornwall mainly depends on its mines : and whereas the application of science to the working of such mines, and to the construction of the engines and machinery used therein, has been and is a most desirable object, and highly advantageous, as well to the lords or owners of the soil as to the adventurers in such mines : and whereas it is expedient, for the better accomplishment of the said object, to establish at Truro, in the said county, a school or college for the especial instruction of such persons as may be brought up to professions connected with mining in the said connty: and whereas it is necessary to make some permanent provision for the establishment and maintenance of such school or college,
1. Be it enacted, &c., That the registrar of the Court of the Vice-Warden of the Stannaries of Cornwall shall and may select from the list of miners for the time being, assessed to the support of the Courts of the Stannaries of Cornwall, under the provisions of an Act passed in the seventh and eighth years of the reign of King William the Fourth, intituled “ An Act to make Provision for the better and more expeditious Administration of Justice in the Stannaries of Cornwall, and for enlarging the Jurisdiction and improving the Practice and Proceedings in the Courts of the said Stannaries,” the names and localities of the 20 mines which, during the then next preceding two years, shall have been assessed in the largest sums of money towards the support of the said courts; and that he shall, on or before the day of
, send to the head manager of each and every of the same mines a notice under his hand, requiring such manager, by and with the consent of the adventurers in such mine or a majority of the same, to make a return to the said registrar of the names of 20 persons to form and constitute the governing body of the school or college to be instituted and founded under
by virtue of this Act; and that, on receipt of such notice, the head manager of every such mine shall forthwith, and within
days at the farthest, return and transmit to the said registrar a list containing the names of 20 persons accordingly.
2. That within days next after the receipt of such list as aforesaid by the said registrar he shall, by writing under his hand, summon the several persons named in the said lists so obtained from the said several head managers of such 20 mines, requiring the said several persons to assemble at the borough of Truro aforesaid, at a time (not later than
days from the date of such summons) to be appointed by the said registrar, and at such place within the said borough as he shall name, for the purpose of their selecting from such list the names of 20 persons of those returned by the greatest number of
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suffrages; and that the 20 persons so selected as last mentioned, together with the archdeacon of the county of Cornwall, and a head or rector, to be chosen as hereinafter described, shall form the governing body of the said school or college, and shall be styled governors.
3. That the 20 persons so chosen as last mentioned shall, immediately after their election, ballot for the order in which their names shall stand in the list of governors, and the first four on such list shall, at the expiration of each succeeding year, retire from the government of the said school or college, and their places shall thereupon, and from time to time, be supplied by the same process of election as hereinbefore described : Provided always that every person so retiring shall, nevertheless, be eligible for a governor at the next succeeding election, and in case of his being chosen shall be placed at the bottom of the list of governors.
4. That the governors so appointed and elected respectively as aforesaid shall, within days next after their appointment and election, meet in the said borough of Truro, at such time and place as may be found convenient to the majority of them, and elect a head or rector, whose duty it shall be, when present, to preside over all meetings of the governors ; and that upon all divisions which shall take place on any question discussed at any such meeting upon which the governors shall come to a division, and whereon there shall be an equality of votes, he shall have a casting-vote; and that any of the said governors shall be considered a quorum, and be competent to transact business, and decide on questions brought before them.
5. That there shall be paid and payable one-half of a farthing in the pound sterling on the value of all metals and metallic minerals which shall be, from time to time, brought to sale in, or withdrawn from, any mine or stream-work within the said county of Cornwall; and that the same shall be assessed and collected in the same manner as the assessment of one farthing in the pound is now made and collected for the support of the said courts of the said Stannaries, under the provisions of the said hereinbefore mentioned Act of Parliament, and that the registrar for the time being of the Vice-Warden's Court aforesaid shall forthwith, after every such assessment and collection, pay over the proceeds to the treasurer of the said school or college for the use and maintenance of the same.
6. That every mine so being assessed at, and having paid, 101., or upwards, annually towards the funds of the said school or college, shall be entitled for and in respect of every 101. of such annual assessment to nominate one student, who shall be admitted to the said school or college, and receive his education on the payment of such fee as shall be determined hereafter by the governors ; and that two or more mines having paid together 101., or upwards, annually towards the said funds, and every single mine which shall,
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for two or more years, defer the exercise of its power
of nomination till its payments shall have amounted to 101., or upwards, shall respectively be entitled for every 101. of such payment to nominate one student to be admitted and educated in like manner: and that every other student admitted into the said school or college, either on the recommendation of the governors, or in any other manner, shall pay the annual sum of 1. towards the funds of the said school or college, in addition to such fees as shall be determined on as an annual payment by the students generally
7. That this Act shall expire on the 1st day of August, 1853.
Some instructive evidence has been recently given by employers of labourers, in this and in foreign countries, on the influence of training and education on the value of workmen, and on the comparative eligibility of educated and uneducated workmen for employment.* I have been permitted to make use of a portion of it, bearing more particularly on the value of education to the workmen themselves.
One of the partners of a firm at Zurich, employing from 1500 to 2000 men, of various European nations, in their establishments in Switzerland, the Tyrol, Italy, and elsewhere, and having, therefore, “many opportunities of observing the moral and intellectual condition of working men, the natives of different countries, differently educated,” gives this testimony:
“From the accounts which pass through my hands, I invariably find that the best educated of our work people manage to live in the most respectable manner at the least expense, or make their money go the farthest in obtaining comforts. This applies equally to the work people of all nations that have come under my observation; the Saxons, and the Dutch, and the Swiss being, however, decidedly the most saving, without stinting themselves in their comforts, or failing in general respectability. With regard to the English, I may say that the educated workmen are the
* It is understood that it will shortly appear in a work about to be published under the authority of the Poor Law Commissioners.
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only ones who save money out of their very large wages. By education I may say that I throughout mean not merely instruction in the arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but better general mental development; the acquisition of better tastes, and of mental amusements and enjoyments, which are cheaper, whilst they are more refined. The most educated of our British workmen is a Scotch engineer, a single man, who has a salary of 31. a-week, or 1501. per year, of which he spends about one-half; he lives in very respectable lodgings, he is always well dressed, he frequents reading-rooms, he subscribes to a circulating library, purchases mathematical instruments, studies German, and has every rational enjoyment. We have an English workman, a single man, also of the same standing, who has the same wages, also a very orderly and sober person, but as his education does not open to him the resource of mental enjoyment, he spends his evenings and Sundays in wine-houses, because he cannot find other sources of amusement, which presuppose a better education, and he spends his whole pay, or one-half more than the other. The extra expenditure of the workman of lower education of 751. a-year arises entirely, as far as I can judge, from inferior arrangement, and the comparatively higher cost of the more sensual enjoyment in the wine-house. The wine-houses which he frequents may be equivalent to the better public-houses in England.'
“ Is the superior general usefulness of the Saxon, or workman of superior education, accompanied by any distinction of superiority as to moral habits ?-Decidedly so. The better educated workmen we find are distinguished by superior moral habits in every respect. In the first place, they are entirely sober; they are discreet in their enjoyments, which are of a more rational and refined kind; they are more refined themselves, and they have a taste for much better society, which they approach respectfully, and consequently find much readier admittance to it; they cultivate music ; they read; they enjoy the pleasures of scenery, and make parties for excursions into the country; they are economical, and their economy extends beyond their own purse to the stock of their master; they are consequently honest and trustworthy.
A manufacturer employing a considerable number of mechanics in Manchester and London is asked
“ Are you aware of the habits of the educated and uneducated workmen, in respect to their habits as regards sobriety out of the works ?—There is no doubt that the educated are more sober and less dissipated than the uneducated. During the hours of recreation the younger portion of the educated workmen indulge more by reading and mental pleasures; they attend more at readingrooms, and avail themselves of the facilities afforded by libraries, in scientific lectures, and lyceums. The older of the more educated workmen spend their time chiefly with their families, eading and walking out with them. The time of the uneducated
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classes is spent very different, and chiefly in the grosser sensual indulgences."
“In respect to the conduct of workmen after their hours of labour, is there any expedient course which, upon experience, you can recommend for their improvement?—
The main thing, it appears to me, for their social improvement is to provide for the occupation of their leisure hours; the first of these is to make the home comfortable, and to minister to the household recreation and amusement: this is a point of view in which the education of the wives of labouring men is really of very great importance, that they may be rational companions for men. In this point of view, also, I think it very important that whatever out-door amusements are provided should not be provided for the men alone, but rather for the men and wives together, and their children.
“ Do you at the Lyceum make any arrangements for carrying out this principle?—Yes; we make a particular point of it. For example, a few nights ago a tea-party was given, to which the wives and families of the members were admitted, and at which there were various amusements. There was an exhibition of the musical glasses; there was also a piano for some instrumental and some vocal music; there were reading and recitations from favourite authors, and very great entertainment was given at a very cheap rate to 400 or 500 men, women, and children.”
The Prussian system of education, or one similar, pervades Germany. With respect to the education or domestic training received by the best Scotch and English workmen in his employ, the gentleman above alluded to states :
“ The mechanics who come from Scotland, and the north of England, Cumberland, and Northumberland, have generally received a tolerably good elementary education. Those from Scotland have been generally educated in the parochial school; they read and write; they are in general good arithmeticians, and in many instances they have a knowledge of the lower branches of mathematics; some of them draw very well. The English workmen from the northern counties are similarly, but variously, and not so well educated as the Scotch, and I attribute it to the want of parochial schools, which in my opinion are invaluable in Scotland. The Irish mechanics that we have here are chiefly from the north of Ireland, and in point of school education they rank very nearly with the mechanics from the English northern counties, though they are somewhat lower in technical training as mechanics. The mechanics from Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and the south of England, are below those of the northern counties, though they are very good mechanics.
“Are you aware whether in the northern counties in England, from which the better educated mechanics come, that better education arises from endowed schools, or from the better management of any endowed schools of the nature of the Scotch parochial
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schools, or whether it arises from education obtained by the population in consequence of their perception of the advantages of education ? - The better education in the counties of Durham and Northumberland does not arise from endowed schools, but from schools conducted on the Scotch parochial principle, and supported by the fees paid by the scholars, as also from the amalgamation of that part of the English with the Scotch population on the borders, and a similarity of habit or impression respecting the advantages of education. The parents of children in those counties are very generally aware of the advantages of the Scotch system of education."
A cotton manufacturer of Philadelphia, conversant with the manner of conducting manufactures in most of the manufacturing States, is of opinion that the superior condition and behaviour of the American workmen proceeds in a great measure from their superior education, their moral instruction, and temperate habits. He is asked
“ Have you any bational system of education ?-We have public schools, supported partly by State funds, and partly by bequests. All children have the privilege of attending.
“Do they, in point of fact, very generally attend in the manufacturing States ?- They universally attend, and I think that information is more generally diffused through the villages and the whole community of the New England States than amongst any other community of which I have any knowledge.
" What is the general view taken of these schools by the manufacturers and persons of wealth in America ?- From their experience they deem them of the greatest importance to the welfare of the State. They are encouraged by the State governments and all the leading persons of the State.
“ How do the children whom you employ obtain education?The manufacturers are always anxious that the children should absent themselves from the manufactory during two or three months of the year to attend the schools. The manufacturers very frequently suggest to the parents the necessity of the children being taken to school."
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APPENDIX III.
The preparatory mining-school near Camborne is so advantageously placed, in reference to a large mining population, that it may be desirable to notice an examination of that school, recently made, and of which I have been obligingly furnished with the following account:Extract of a letter from the Rev. J. Punnett, Vicar of St. Erth. “You were correctly informed that I had lately assisted at an
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examination of the school near Camborne, or, rather, of the boys composing the mining-class of that school.
“ The subjects of examination bore more or less directly on mining operations and pursuits, such, for instance, as the solid content of excavations, and the cost of making them ;-the force upon inclined planes of different inclination ;-the strain upon ropes acting obliquely with a given force ;--the pressure upon cylinders of different diameters ;—the relative strength of timber, on its flat or edge, and the comparative strength of materials in general; the conversion of the power of steam and water into corresponding horse power ;—the weight and quantity of water in the lifts of pumps, &c. One of the boys, who had been at the school longer than the rest, I examined in algebra, as far as expansions by the Binomial Theorem. The questions, ranging, as you will see, over a considerable surface, were solved with rapidity and correctness, and, as we found upon investigation, with a due understanding of the principles upon which the solution depended. Plans and drawings of sections of mines, well executed by the boys, were suspended round the room. The collection of mathematical instruments is unusually large for a school of this description; and the pupils enjoy the great advantage of accompanying the master in his visits to the mines, where they are practically instructed in surveying and dialling. For their information in a branch of the miner's profession, upon which, as I know, from experience, singular ignorance prevails, he is collecting a series of specimens of the different varieties of ores and gossans ; so that they may acquire a greater familiarity, so far as the eye can help them to it, with the metallic and mineral combinations.
“It ought to be stated that the school is in a very initial state, the greater part of the boys having been but a short time under instruction. Indeed, so little encouragement did the master meet with from those very persons (mine agents, for instance, and managers) who, one might have supposed, would most readily have availed themselves of such a superior practical education for their children, that, but for the kind interest and liberality of Lady Basset extended towards it, he must have relinquished his school altogether, and have engaged in a different employment to obtain a livelihood. Matters are, however, beginning to wear a more favourable aspect; a reaction, I believe, is slowly, but surely, taking place in the public mind; and parties who previously held back, and declined to countenance any improved system of mining education, are beginning to perceive that there may be some benefit derivable from a better and more advanced course of instruction in a profession which, one would think, as much as any other, if not more so, must be advantaged by the resources of science and sound philosophy."
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Report of December 24 , 1840
See also pages 202 onwards in https://books.googleusercontent.com/books/content?req=AKW5Qac3B_21SI7wP…
Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education
Great Britain. Committee on Education
The Committee, 1841
